CRISPR/Cas9 in perspective: evaluating efficacy, delivery methods, and ethical challenges in genome editing

The latest developments in DNA sequencing techniques have revealed genes that play a role in determining our vulnerability to diseases and have given us a deeper understanding of our genetic composition. A groundbreaking milestone in genetic engineering has transformed the capabilities of the scientific community in altering the genetic material of different organisms. Among recent innovations, the clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) associated protein 9 (Cas9) has emerged as a powerful and precise tool for genome editing across diverse organisms. Its applications span immunotherapy, agriculture, poultry science, and human therapeutics, marking a transformative shift in biomedical and biotechnological research. However, the rapid progress and clinical translation of CRISPR/Cas9 have raised significant concerns regarding off-target effects, delivery challenges, long-term safety, and ethical implications. This review critically evaluates the CRISPR/Cas9 system by examining its molecular mechanism, editing efficiency, gene delivery approaches, and potential for inducing unintended mutations. A comparative analysis with other gene-editing tools is presented, emphasizing the advantages of CRISPR/Cas9 in programmability and editing efficiency. Furthermore, we discuss current advances including base editing, prime editing, and high-fidelity Cas variants, along with the ethical and societal dimensions of genome editing. This synthesis provides an updated perspective on the potential and limitations of CRISPR/Cas9 technology and highlights key areas for future research and responsible application.