Spatial Distribution, Abundance, and Threats to the Indian Pangolin (Manis crassicaudata) in Buner District, Lesser...

The Indian pangolin (Manis crassicaudata), an elusive and endangered mammal, remains poorly studied in Pakistan, particularly in the mountain landscapes of the Lesser Himalayas. This study provides the first detailed ecological baseline of the species' spatial distribution, burrow characteristics, habitat associations, and anthropogenic threats in District Buner, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, based on systematic field surveys conducted from October 2022 to September 2023. Using a stratified random sampling design, systematic surveys were conducted across 54 km² of surveyed habitat along line transects and associated circular plots, resulting in the documentation of 127 pangolin burrows across four tehsils. These comprised feeding burrows (63.8%), inactive burrows (26.0%), and active resting (living) burrows (10.2%). The burrow-based abundance patterns indicated that active burrows were primarily recorded between 300 and 700 m elevation, with occasional occurrences up to 1300 m, and were absent above this range. Burrow activity was highest in Mandanr Tehsil and was associated with north- and east-facing slopes, loamy soils, rocky substrates, moderate canopy cover (41%-70%), and dense understory vegetation. Phytohabitat associations showed that resting burrows were frequently linked to Lantana camara and Punica granatum, whereas feeding burrows were commonly associated with Dalbergia sissoo, Acacia modesta, and prey-rich substrates. Burrow concentrations were greatest within ecotonal zones between scrub forest and subtropical pine forest, while areas dominated by Pinus roxburghii, Juglans regia, and Quercus incana showed no evidence of pangolin presence. Two direct sightings and physical remains provided independent confirmation of species presence and suggested localized decline at some sites. Major threats identified through field observations and community surveys included poaching, illegal trade, habitat degradation, marble mining, and unregulated infrastructure development, exacerbated by weak law enforcement and low local awareness. This study provides a robust ecological baseline for M. crassicaudata in the Lesser Himalayas of Pakistan and informs targeted, context-specific conservation interventions.