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Lytic Cycle of Bacteriophages

Lytic Cycle of Bacteriophages

Bacteriophages, also known as phages, are specialized viruses that infect bacteria. A key characteristic of phages is their distinctive “head-tail” morphology. A phage begins the infection process (i.e., lytic cycle) by attaching to the outside of a bacterial cell. Attachment is accomplished via proteins in the phage tail that bind to specific receptor proteins on the outer surface of the bacterium. The tail injects the phage’s DNA genome into the bacterial cytoplasm. In the lytic replication...

Lysogenic Cycle of Bacteriophages

Lysogenic Cycle of Bacteriophages

In contrast to the lytic cycle, phages infecting bacteria via the lysogenic cycle do not immediately kill their host cell. Instead, they combine their genome with the host genome, allowing the bacteria to replicate the phage DNA along with the bacterial genome. The incorporated copy of the phage genome is called the prophage. Some prophages can re-activate and enter the lytic cycle. This often occurs in response to a perturbation, such as DNA damage, but can also transpire in the absence of...

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Updated: May 9, 2026

Individualized Reconstitution of Human Milk Microbiota: A Feasible Approach in Real-World Settings

Individualized Reconstitution of Human Milk Microbiota: A Feasible Approach in Real-World Settings

Published on: February 7, 2025

Recovering viable bacteriophages from human milk: implications for sample storage and processing.

Ranran Li¹, Julianne Megaw¹, Natalie S Shenker²

¹School of Biological Sciences and Institute for Global Food Security, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, BT9 5DL, United Kingdom.

Journal of Applied Microbiology

|May 7, 2026

Summary

This summary is machine-generated.

Viable bacteriophages are not found in human milk stored for 12 months at -20°C. Long-term storage at -80°C preserves bacteriophage viability better than -20°C.

Keywords:

bacteriophage isolation holder pasteurization human milk sterilization storage condition

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Rapid Isolation of Human Breast Milk-Derived Extracellular Vesicles

Rapid Isolation of Human Breast Milk-Derived Extracellular Vesicles

Published on: November 14, 2025

Area of Science:

Microbiology
Food Science

Background:

Molecular methods detect bacteriophage diversity in human milk, but not viability.
Donor human milk undergoes processing (freeze-thaw, heat treatment) affecting viability.

Purpose of the Study:

Isolate bacteriophages from frozen human milk.
Evaluate sterilization and storage effects on bacteriophage survival.

Main Methods:

Bacteriophage isolation from 20 frozen human milk samples.
Artificial inoculation of milk/water with E. coli phage T4.
Exposure to UV-C, Holder, and HTST pasteurization.
Storage at different temperatures (-20°C, -80°C, 4°C, room temp).

Main Results:

No viable bacteriophages found in milk stored 12 months at -20°C.
UV-C irradiation significantly inactivated E. coli phage T4, especially in skimmed milk.
Holder and HTST pasteurization had no significant effect on phage viability.
Phage T4 better preserved at 4°C vs. room temp over 48 hours.
Viability after 90 days: -80°C (31.6%) vs. -20°C (9.4%).

Conclusions:

Prioritize fresh human milk samples for bacteriophage isolation.
For short-term storage (up to 48 hours), use refrigerated temperatures.
For long-term storage (up to 3 months), -80°C is preferable to -20°C.