Cross-reactive tissue-resident memory T lymphocytes-concepts, evidence, and open questions

Tissue-resident memory T (Trm) cells have emerged as a distinct lymphocyte lineage that provides rapid, frontline immune surveillance in peripheral tissues while also contributing to durable systemic immunity. A critical and evolving aspect of Trm cell biology is their inherent cross-reactivity-the ability of a single T cell receptor (TCR) to recognize and respond to multiple related or unrelated antigens beyond its primary target.

This review synthesizes current knowledge on the dual roles of cross-reactive Trm cells, which can mediate broad protection against heterologous infections and cancers but may also precipitate or exacerbate autoimmune pathology. We first address the developmental origins, tissue-specific distribution (from barrier surfaces to internal organs, including the central nervous system and bone marrow niches), and key functions that define the Trm population. A central focus is placed on the mechanistic basis of TCR cross-reactivity, comparing and contrasting its regulation in circulating memory T cells versus Trm cells. We delve into how tissue-specific signals, particularly local cytokine milieus and epigenetic reprogramming such as demethylation imprints, shape the functional avidity and antigenic breadth of Trm cell responses. Finally, we discuss emerging therapeutic strategies designed to either harness the protective cross-reactivity of Trm cells for next-generation vaccines and immunotherapies or to restrain its detrimental potential in autoimmune and inflammatory diseases.

Trm cells are powerful immune sentinels whose TCR cross-reactivity enables broad protection but also risks autoimmunity. Understanding these precise rules is key to developing Trm-based immunotherapies against cancer and infections while avoiding autoimmunity.