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Related Concept Videos

Self-Report Tests of Personality01:22

Self-Report Tests of Personality

Self-report inventories are objective personality assessments that use multiple-choice items or numbered scales, typically ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). They are often called Likert scales after Rensis Likert. These inventories are widely used due to their ease of administration and cost-effectiveness. One of the most prominent examples is the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), initially developed in the 1940s to assess abnormal personality traits.
Self-Discrepancy Theory02:45

Self-Discrepancy Theory

One influential perspective on what motivates people's behavior is detailed in Tory Higgin's self-discrepancy theory (Higgins, 1987). He proposed that people hold disagreeing internal representations of themselves that lead to different emotional states.
Strategies of Self-Presentation III: Self-Monitoring01:24

Strategies of Self-Presentation III: Self-Monitoring

Self-monitoring is a central construct in understanding individual differences in self-presentation strategies across social contexts. It refers to how individuals observe, regulate, and control their expressive behavior and self-presentation following situational cues. Self-monitoring reflects a person's sensitivity to social appropriateness and willingness to adapt behavior to fit varying interpersonal demands.High vs. Low Self-Monitoring IndividualsIndividuals high in self-monitoring are...
Self-Presentation: Self-Monitoring and Self-Handicapping02:05

Self-Presentation: Self-Monitoring and Self-Handicapping

People can go to great lengths to protect their self-image and present themselves in ways that they want others to see them. Sociologist Erving Goffman presented the idea that a person is like an actor on a stage. Calling his theory dramaturgy, Goffman believed that we use “impression management” to present ourselves to others as we hope to be perceived. Each situation is a new scene, and individuals perform different roles depending on who is present (Goffman, 1959). Think about the way you...
Self-Discrepancy and Its Effects01:29

Self-Discrepancy and Its Effects

Self-discrepancy theory explains how people compare their actual self to their ideal and ought selves and how mismatches between these self-guides can lead to emotional distress. Developed by E. Tory Higgins, the theory distinguishes among three components of self-concept: the actual self, the ideal self, and the ought self. These refer respectively to how individuals perceive themselves, how they aspire to be, and how they believe they are obligated to be. Emotional well-being, self-esteem,...
Introspection01:29

Introspection

Introspection, long upheld as a reliable route to self-knowledge, involves examining one's thoughts, emotions, and mental processes. It underpins many psychological practices, from mindfulness meditation to psychotherapy and self-help strategies. However, empirical evidence challenges the accuracy of introspection as a means of understanding oneself.Limitations of Introspective InsightSeminal work by Nisbett and Wilson demonstrated that individuals are frequently unaware of the true causes...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 10, 2026

Development of a Virtual Reality Assessment of Everyday Living Skills
10:32

Development of a Virtual Reality Assessment of Everyday Living Skills

Published on: April 23, 2014

Readability of Self-Reported Measures in Psychosis.

Joseph Nickel1, Sujeeth Krishna Shanmugam1,2, Asad Khan1

  • 1Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina.

The Primary Care Companion for CNS Disorders
|May 8, 2026
PubMed
Summary

Measures for assessing psychosis are written above recommended reading levels, hindering accurate symptom evaluation. Improvements are needed for better patient understanding and treatment monitoring in psychotic disorders.

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Published on: September 27, 2020

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Last Updated: May 10, 2026

Development of a Virtual Reality Assessment of Everyday Living Skills
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Published on: April 23, 2014

Multimodal Protocol for Assessing Metacognition and Self-Regulation in Adults with Learning Difficulties
12:55

Multimodal Protocol for Assessing Metacognition and Self-Regulation in Adults with Learning Difficulties

Published on: September 27, 2020

Area of Science:

  • Psychiatry
  • Clinical Psychology
  • Health Literacy

Background:

  • Effective assessment of psychosis is crucial for timely diagnosis and treatment.
  • Readability of assessment tools impacts patient comprehension and adherence.
  • Current psychosis assessment measures may not meet established readability standards.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To evaluate the readability levels of commonly used psychosis assessment measures.
  • To determine if these measures align with recommended literacy standards for patient understanding.

Main Methods:

  • A literature search identified 14 psychosis assessment measures meeting specific criteria.
  • Readability was assessed using four validated formulas: Gunning Fog, SMOG, FORCAST, and Flesch Reading Ease.
  • Measures with average scores above 6.00 were considered above the recommended reading level.

Main Results:

  • All analyzed measures demonstrated mean readability scores exceeding the recommended sixth-grade level.
  • Instruction sections averaged a reading level of 9.08, while item sections averaged 9.06.
  • The range of reading levels indicated significant difficulty across all measures.

Conclusions:

  • Psychosis assessment measures are written at a reading level higher than recommended standards.
  • This readability gap may impede accurate symptom assessment and treatment monitoring.
  • There is a critical need to revise these measures to improve accessibility for patients with psychotic disorders.