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Updated: May 13, 2026

Quantitative Imaging of Lineage-specific Toll-like Receptor-mediated Signaling in Monocytes and Dendritic Cells from Small Samples of Human Blood
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The problem with one-size-fits-all medicine: Biological sex and the aging immune system
Clayton Baker1,2, Victor A Ansere1, Cossette I Sanqui1,3
1Leonard Davis School of Gerontology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, United States of America.
Abstract:
Aging has effects on the immune system that are similar in men and women, but also reshapes their immune systems in unique, sex-specific ways. These sex-specific patterns of immune aging influence disease susceptibility, vaccine effectiveness, cancer survival, and responses to pharmacological therapies, and have direct implications for preventive medicine and clinical care. However, these differences in susceptibilities and responses are rarely considered in research, clinical trials, or treatment guidelines. By integrating knowledge of sex-specific immune aging with real-world outcomes from vaccines, cancer immunotherapy, and pharmacovigilance studies, this Essay argues that accounting for both sex and age is essential to advance personalized medicine.
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