Gene Therapy in Hemophilia: Clinical Advances, Immunological Challenges, and Emerging Therapeutic Perspectives

Gene therapy is reshaping the therapeutic paradigm in hemophilia by enabling sustained endogenous clotting factor production after a single administration. This approach moves disease management beyond lifelong replacement therapy. While clinical trials have demonstrated marked reductions in bleeding rates and treatment burden, real-world implementation has revealed emerging complexities. These include interindividual variability in transgene expression reflected by a progressive reduction in circulating FVIII or FIX activity over time, uncertainty regarding the long-term durability of expression, immune-mediated constraints, and episodes of transaminase elevation. This review addresses a critical transition point in the field: the shift from proof-of-concept efficacy toward integration of gene therapy into long-term hemophilia care. We examine determinants of therapeutic stability, host-vector immune interactions, and mechanisms underlying loss or fluctuation of expression, with emphasis on monitoring strategies and post-therapy management pathways. Immunogenic processes affecting vector transduction, hepatocellular responses, and transgene persistence are discussed alongside current approaches to immune modulation. This review uniquely focuses on post-gene therapy clinical integration rather than vector design or trial outcomes. Beyond direct factor correction, evolving therapeutic concepts targeting coagulation rebalancing and immune regulation are considered within a systems-based framework. Psychosocial adaptation and patient-reported outcomes are also explored, underscoring that therapeutic success extends beyond hemostatic control. In aggregate, these perspectives position gene therapy not as a singular curative event but as a component of an evolving, biologically integrated management strategy. Long-term follow-up translational research (LTFU) and coordinated global efforts will be essential to optimize durability, safety, and equitable access.