Sarcopenia in Chronic Heart Failure: Pathophysiology, Clinical Consequences, and Emerging Multimodal Therapeutic...

Sarcopenia is increasingly recognized as a key extracardiac manifestation of heart failure (HF), contributing to functional impairment, reduced quality of life, and adverse clinical outcomes. Characterized by progressive loss of skeletal muscle mass, strength, and physical performance, it affects more than half of hospitalized HF patients. It is independently associated with increased mortality and reduced exercise capacity. The pathophysiology of sarcopenia in HF is multifactorial and closely linked to metabolic and nutritional disturbances. Chronic inflammation, neurohormonal activation, oxidative stress, endothelial dysfunction, and anabolic resistance contribute to muscle catabolism and impaired protein synthesis. These alterations are further exacerbated by inadequate dietary protein intake and micronutrient deficiencies, promoting progressive muscle wasting and functional decline. Sarcopenia may also represent an early and potentially modifiable stage in the continuum toward cardiac cachexia. This narrative review provides a comprehensive synthesis of current evidence on the epidemiology, pathophysiological mechanisms, and management of sarcopenia in HF, with particular emphasis on nutritional and metabolic determinants. Emerging data support a multimodal therapeutic approach integrating exercise training with targeted nutritional strategies, including adequate protein intake, essential amino acid supplementation, and correction of micronutrient deficiencies. However, evidence from large, well-designed trials remains limited. In summary, improved recognition and integrated management of sarcopenia in HF are essential. Future research should focus on the development of effective, nutrition-centered therapeutic strategies.