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Mechanical systems are analogous to to electrical networks where springs and masses play similar roles to inductors and capacitors, respectively. A viscous damper in mechanical systems functions similarly to a resistor in electrical networks, dissipating energy. The forces acting on a mass in such systems include an applied force in the direction of motion, counteracted by forces from the spring, a viscous damper, and the mass's acceleration. This interplay of forces is mathematically described...
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A Flexible Wearable Supernumerary Robotic Limb for Chronic Stroke Patients
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Soft pneumatic actuators for wearable systems: a structural classification and integration-oriented evaluation.

Émélie Bowness1, Marc Doumit1

  • 1Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada.

Progress in Biomedical Engineering (Bristol, England)
|May 13, 2026
PubMed
Summary

Selecting soft pneumatic actuators for wearables requires a structure-first approach. This review links actuator design to performance and garment integration, aiding in choosing body-safe, body-conforming devices.

Keywords:
fiber-reinforced soft actuatorsorigami and kirigami actuatorspneumatic artificial muscles (McKibben)soft exoskeletons (exosuits)soft pneumatic actuatorstextile-based soft actuatorswearable robotics

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Area of Science:

  • Biomedical Engineering
  • Materials Science
  • Robotics

Background:

  • Soft pneumatic actuators (SPAs) offer gentle, body-safe assistance but face integration challenges due to geometric changes, profile increase, and stress on seams/ports during inflation.
  • Current actuator selection often overlooks the critical link between structural design, deformation behavior, and seamless integration into wearable systems.
  • Wearable systems demand actuators that are geometrically compatible, scalable in fabrication, ready for system integration, and simple to actuate.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To reframe actuator selection for wearables through a structure-first lens, connecting structural architecture to deformation and garment integration.
  • To classify SPAs by architecture, deformation, and fabrication, evaluating them against key wearable integration criteria.
  • To propose a staged selection pathway and mapping table to guide the choice of SPAs for specific wearable applications.

Main Methods:

  • Classification of SPAs based on structural architecture, deformation behavior, and fabrication methods.
  • Evaluation of actuator classes against integration criteria: geometric compatibility, fabrication scalability, system integration readiness, and actuation simplicity.
  • Development of a literature-informed mapping table to link application contexts with integration priorities and suitable structural classes.

Main Results:

  • Planar sheet actuators maintain thin profiles if seams, constraints, and attachments are co-designed.
  • Pouch/bladder actuators are simple but bulge without constraints; envelope control and port routing are integration challenges.
  • Fiber-constrained actuators offer high force but need rigid terminations and high pressure; segmented elastomers provide complex kinematics but face bulging and routing issues; mechanical metamaterials offer programmed motion but depend on joint fidelity and durability.

Conclusions:

  • Practical priorities for wearable SPAs include maintaining thin profiles, enabling stitchable/bondable attachments, ensuring reproducible processes, minimizing dead volume/routing, and targeting low-pressure operation.
  • A structural framing approach standardizes comparison across actuator types, clarifying the design space for compact, body-conforming devices.
  • This framework supports deliberate actuator selection for biomedical wearables, optimizing performance and integration.