Next-generation immune models: bioinks, 3D bioprinting, and future directions

3D bioprinting has evolved as a promising new approach to build physiologically relevant in vitro tissue microenvironments. Recent evidence demonstrates that microenvironmental cues regulate immune cell activation and function, making bioprinted immune niches valuable for basic and translational immunology research. This review outlines key considerations for 3D bioprinting immune niches, particularly bioinks and biofabrication strategies. Drawing from bioprinted tissue constructs, immune niches, and the anatomy of the immune system, we suggest directions to expand the bioprinting toolbox for immune niches.