Engineering Ti₃C₂T _x (titanium carbide) MXene-based composites and emerging applications: a mini review

Two-dimensional Ti₃C₂T _x MXene has attracted considerable attention owing to its metallic conductivity, tunable surface terminations, and structural versatility, which underpin its broad functional applicability. Although numerous review articles have addressed Ti₃C₂T _x MXene-based composites, most have primarily focused on energy storage and energy conversion systems. In contrast, this review provides a fundamental and up-to-date overview of Ti₃C₂T _x MXene research in recent years, emphasizing the relationship between synthesis strategies, surface termination control, structural and electronic properties, and application-specific performance. First, various synthesis routes are discussed with particular emphasis on how etching conditions, post-treatment processes, and delamination strategies regulate the surface termination groups (-O, -OH, and -F) and defect structures of Ti₃C₂T _x . These surface chemistries critically influence the electronic structure, interlayer spacing, hydrophilicity, and charge transport characteristics of the material. Subsequently, the resulting structure-property relationships are analyzed to explain how these physicochemical features govern functional performance in different technological applications. Particular attention is devoted to integrating experimental observations with density functional theory (DFT) calculations to elucidate reaction mechanisms and interfacial interactions. Finally, applications in sensing, energy harvesting, water splitting, water remediation, and biomedical technologies are systematically discussed. By correlating synthesis parameters with surface chemistry and electronic structure, this review aims to provide a fundamental framework for understanding current challenges and guiding the rational design and scalable deployment of Ti₃C₂T _x MXene-based systems.