Visual-spatial demands in sports: An empirical survey based study

Visual-spatial information processing demands in sports can be understood along two key dimensions: intrinsic versus extrinsic and static versus dynamic. Different sports require varying intersecting combinations of these dimensions, often emphasizing one aspect more than another. This study aimed to classify 20 commonly practiced sports based on perceived visual-spatial demands along these dimensions. Participants rated each sport using two separate continuous scales assessing intrinsic-extrinsic orientation and static-dynamic task demands. A total of 250 participants (143 female, 107 male) completed the 40 ratings. For the intrinsic-extrinsic dimension, team sports, such as soccer or basketball, were classified as relying more on extrinsic visual-spatial skills, while technique-oriented individual sports, like dancing or gymnastics, were rated as requiring more intrinsic visual-spatial abilities. Sports such as judo and canoeing received intermediate scores along the intrinsic-extrinsic dimension. For the static-dynamic dimension, cycling, horse riding and gymnastics demonstrated intermediate scores. Except for golf, shooting, and sailing, which were rated as more static, all other sports were rated as more dynamic. Hierarchical classification and k-means clustering indicated that sports could be grouped into four clusters demonstrating intersection of intrinsic/static, intrinsic/dynamic, extrinsic/dynamic and intermediate intrinsic-extrinsic/static-dynamic dimensions. The results aligned with Uttal's framework and further supported a possible extension of it by indicating that visual-spatial demands in sports are organized along a graded continua rather than dichotomous categories, reflecting complex dimensional interactions. Future research in cognitive training and sport psychology may benefit from conceptualizing visual-spatial information processing demands in sports along continuous dimensions rather than discrete categories.