The interconnection of cryobiology and tissue engineering

Over the past decades, cryobiology has become increasingly integrated across a variety of domains. With broad intersection, this discipline has recently also emerged as a cornerstone for advancing and clinically translating tissue-engineered constructs (TECs). This review provides a comprehensive overview of recent advances at the intersection of cryobiology and tissue engineering. Vitrification of both scaffold-based and scaffold-free TECs as well as approaches of its upscaling including benefits of polymers and technical devices are comprehensibly discussed. The development of biologically inspired nanoscale materials is outlined as an integral part of this research. Success in vitrification of organoids is also discussed. Developments in controlled-rate slow-cooling/freezing protocols are then examined, with particular attention to xeno-free and Me₂SO-free cryoprotective systems that enhance cell viability and biocompatibility. Preclinical studies utilizing cryopreserved TECs in animal models are further outlined as key milestones toward clinical translation. Furthermore, this review introduces emerging synergistic approaches that make TECs more adaptable to cryopreservation by incorporating cryoprotective agents (CPAs), nanoparticles, cold-responsive polymers and ice recrystallization/devitrification inhibitors at the scaffold design stage. Finally, cryobioprinting as an emerging approach that unites cryobiology and tissue engineering, offering new opportunities for the fabrication, storage, and on-demand deployment of viable tissue constructs is reviewed. Overall, the overviewed experimental evidence underscores the transformative role of cryobiology in driving recent advances in the field of tissue engineering and fostering innovative and forward-looking strategies in this field. Ultimately, a closer convergence of cryobiology, tissue engineering, and transplantation science will be essential to advance TECs toward scalable, off-the-shelf availability.