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Related Concept Videos

Receptor-mediated Endocytosis01:38

Receptor-mediated Endocytosis

Overview
Receptor-mediated Endocytosis01:20

Receptor-mediated Endocytosis

Receptor-mediated endocytosis is when bulk amounts of specific molecules are imported into a cell after binding to cell surface receptors. The molecules bound to these receptors are taken into the cell through inward folding of the cell surface membrane, which is eventually pinched off into a vesicle within the cell. Structural proteins, such as clathrin, coat the budding vesicle.
Clathrin-Mediated Endocytosis of LDL
One well-characterized example of receptor-mediated endocytosis is the...
Intralumenal Vesicles and Multivesicular Bodies01:38

Intralumenal Vesicles and Multivesicular Bodies

Intraluminal vesicles (ILVs) are small vesicles 50-80 nm in diameter formed during the maturation of early endosomes. A specialized endosome containing numerous ILVs is called a multivesicular body (MVB). ILVs contain internalized molecules such as antigens, nucleic acids, proteins, and metabolites. Some of these molecules are released from the MVBs inside exosomes and are transported to other cells. Other MVBs contain molecules that are retained in the ILVs and are later degraded within the...
Overview of Exosomes01:36

Overview of Exosomes

Exosomes are stable, lipid bilayer-enclosed vesicles capable of crossing biological barriers. They can carry a wide range of molecules required for intercellular communication. Once exosomes are released from the cell where they originated, they enter a recipient cell through various pathways such as fusion, receptor-mediated endocytosis, macropinocytosis, and phagocytosis.
Stahl et al. discovered exosomes in 1983, but the exosomes were initially considered waste products released from the...
Overview of Secretory Vesicles01:33

Overview of Secretory Vesicles

Secretory vesicles, also known as dense core vesicles (DCVs), are membrane-bound vesicles that transport secretory proteins, such as hormones or neurotransmitters. Regulated secretory vesicles transport proteins from the trans-Golgi network to the exterior of the cell. Proteins present in regulated secretory vesicles are required to be rapidly exocytosed in large amounts upon a specific stimulus.
Various proteins regulate the aggregation of molecules inside the secretory vesicles. Chromogranins...
Adherens Junctions01:24

Adherens Junctions

Strong contact points between adjacent cells anchor them to each other, forming tissues. Such anchoring junctions are of two types –  adherens junctions and desmosomes. Adherens junctions are abundant in tissues such as  epithelium and endothelium, forming a continuous zone of adhesion called the adhesion belt. In other tissues, such as  heart muscle, they appear as clusters, linking the cells to produce coordinated heart muscle contraction.
Adherens Junctions are Dynamic
The endothelial cells...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 20, 2026

Isolation and Purification of Bacterial Extracellular Vesicles from Human Feces Using Density Gradient Centrifugation
06:39

Isolation and Purification of Bacterial Extracellular Vesicles from Human Feces Using Density Gradient Centrifugation

Published on: September 1, 2023

Extracellular vesicles derived from Enterococcus faecalis: inflammatory activation does not require internalization.

Marlon Alexander Gancino Guevara1, Arefeh Kardani1, Annika Schomisch1

  • 1Department of Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical Biology, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, 66123, Germany.

Cell Communication and Signaling : CCS
|May 19, 2026
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) from Enterococcus faecalis trigger pro-inflammatory responses in host macrophages by activating Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) signaling, independent of internalization. These bacterial EVs also reprogram macrophage metabolism toward a pro-inflammatory state.

Keywords:
ex vivo embryonic zebrafish macrophagesDynamin-dependent endocytosisGram-positive bacterial EVsHMDMsHUVECsNF-κBPam3CSK4Small unilamellar vesiclesTLR2extracellular flux analysis

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Area of Science:

  • Microbiology
  • Immunology
  • Cell Biology

Background:

  • Enterococcus faecalis is a Gram-positive bacterium causing severe infections.
  • Bacteria-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) mediate host-bacteria communication and influence disease.
  • The role of E. faecalis-derived EVs (Ef-EVs) in host immune responses is not well understood.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate the immunomodulatory effects of Ef-EVs on host cells.
  • To elucidate the mechanisms by which Ef-EVs influence host immune signaling and metabolism.

Main Methods:

  • Ef-EVs were isolated and characterized using ultracentrifugation, size exclusion chromatography, nanoparticle tracking analysis, and cryogenic transmission electron microscopy.
  • Immunomodulatory effects were assessed in vitro using reporter cells, primary macrophages, and endothelial cells, as well as in vivo using zebrafish larvae.
  • Signaling pathways and metabolic reprogramming were analyzed using uptake inhibitors, functionalized EVs, RNA-Seq, and metabolic flux analysis.

Main Results:

  • Ef-EVs induce pro-inflammatory responses in macrophages via Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) signaling.
  • TLR2 activation by Ef-EVs occurs at the plasma membrane and is independent of EV internalization.
  • Ef-EVs promote metabolic reprogramming in macrophages towards a pro-inflammatory, glycolytic phenotype.

Conclusions:

  • Gram-positive bacterial EVs can modulate host immune signaling and metabolic pathways.
  • Ef-EVs provide a mechanism for E. faecalis to influence host responses during infection.
  • These findings advance the understanding of host-pathogen communication mediated by bacterial EVs.