Heavy metals in Indian agro-based products: a comprehensive review on occurrence, risk assessment, plant uptake...

The contamination of soil by heavy metals has turned out to be an increasingly greater global environmental concern attracting much public attention, mainly increasing anxiety over the safety of agricultural products. Heavy metal exposure in agricultural produce has turned out to be an emerging concern in the developing nation of India due to anthropogenic activities like industrialization, farming practices, and poor environmental management. Heavy metals are defined as various metals and metalloids, with biological toxicity, among which lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), arsenic (As), and chromium (Cr) indeed pose serious threats to crop viability and food safety. The bioaccumulation of heavy metals in crops ultimately results in decreased agro-productivity and lower nutritional quality and these metals lead into future health hazards in humans. The heavy metals can bind to soil surfaces and then be absorbed by plant tissues. Cereals, pulses, fruits, and vegetables are the major supply of micronutrients, antioxidants, vitamins, and other nutrients essential for human growth. Therefore, the consumption of agro crops grown in wastewater-irrigated land poses a potential threat to humans. Since wastewater irrigation cannot be eliminated in the Indian (semi-)urban areas because of the ever-increasing demand for irrigation water, it is important to assess the impact of heavy metals grown by wastewater irrigation. The current review emphasizes the long-term consumption of agro products cultivated in wastewater-irrigated lands from the Indian sites and the health risks factor with humans, and to create awareness on food safety and security in India. This review provides rigorous data of heavy metal infiltration into the Indian food supply, evaluating the mechanisms of bioaccumulation and public health vulnerability. It addresses a critical research gap by characterizing the specific contaminant profiles of a developing nation's agro-industrial ecosystem. Ultimately, this work offers a systematic framework for understanding the pathways of heavy metal transmission and the resulting imperatives for risk mitigation in the region.