Elephantopus scaber L.: phytochemistry, pharmacology, nanoformulation, and synthetic modification - a review

Elephantopus scaber L. (Asteraceae), a traditional Asian medicinal plant, has been used to treat fever, inflammation, liver disorders, and cancer. This review summarises its phytochemistry and pharmacology with an emphasis on sesquiterpene lactones. A comprehensive search of peer-reviewed English articles was conducted in PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar using the keywords 'Elephantopus scaber', 'sesquiterpene lactones', and 'pharmacology', covering literature from the earliest available records up to June 2025, with additional relevant studies incorporated until March 2026. A total of 131 secondary metabolites were identified, including sesquiterpene lactones, phenolic acids, flavonoids, lignans, triterpenoids, phytosterols, aliphatic compounds, and nitrogenous derivatives. Deoxyelephantopin, isodeoxyelephantopin, scabertopin, and their analogs are the dominant contributors to its bioactivity. Extracts and isolated compounds exhibit significant anticancer, anti-inflammatory, and organ-protective effects through induction of apoptosis, inhibition of proliferation and metastasis (in vitro and in vivo), and modulation of cytokines. Key mechanisms involve the NF-κB, PI3K/Akt/mTOR, MAPK, STAT3, and NLRP3 pathways. E. scaber metabolites represent promising drug leads; however, challenges remain in bioavailability, pharmacokinetics, and comprehensive toxicity evaluation.