Evolutionary Study of Transposable Elements: Structural Characterization and Phylogenomic Profiling in Plant Genomes

Transposable elements (TEs) are dynamic DNA sequences that play a significant role in shaping genome structure and function in eukaryotic species. Advances in next-generation sequencing technologies have enhanced our understanding of the abundance and diversity of transposable element families. Transcriptionally active TEs contribute to intra-species genetic variability and facilitate adaptation to environmental stressors, such as heat, drought, and salinity, by inducing mutations, modulating gene expression, and promoting genome rearrangements. Recent studies highlight the important role of horizontal transfer and vertical transmission mechanisms in the evolution of Class I and Class II TE families. The Opie and Ji families of LTR elements serve as examples of conserved TEs that contribute to the expansion of the maize genome. In contrast to RIRE1, which remains relatively stable, Tos17 is largely inactive under normal conditions but can be activated under stress, such as tissue culture, thereby contributing to genome dynamics. This review explores key examples of horizontal transfer and vertical transmission of TEs in plant species, along with their structural features, evolutionary trajectories, and divergence patterns.