Virus-Like Particles: From Fundamental Concepts to Cutting-Edge Applications - A Comprehensive Review of Production,...

Virus-like particles (VLPs) are non-infectious nanoparticles that resemble native viruses, and are highly immunogenic because of their repetitive surface geometry and efficient lymph node drainage. Although their effectiveness in prophylactic vaccines cannot be denied, the range of VLP applications has increased manifold. This is a comprehensive review of the whole VLP pipeline, including production and clinical translation. We present a critical comparison of expression systems, such as prokaryotic, yeast, baculovirus/insect cell (BEVS), mammalian, and emerging systems, with trade-offs in terms of yield, authenticity, and scalability. The article explores the more complex engineering approaches to functionalizing VLPs through genetic fusion and chemical conjugation, which allow functional antigen display, cell-specific targeting, and encapsulation of various cargo. In addition to vaccination, we discuss the latest uses of targeted drug delivery, cancer therapy, gene editing, and molecular imaging. Lastly, the review focuses on the critical issues of manufacturing scalability, analytical characterization, and regulatory pathways to clinical translation. This analysis combines the key principles with the leading-edge technologies to highlight the transformative nature of VLPs as versatile nanotechnologies capable of enhancing preventive and precision medicine.