Recent advances in biomedical applications of fluorescent carbon dots

Carbon dots have become one of the most versatile families of nanomaterials, distinguished by their exceptional photoluminescence, water dispersibility, and intrinsic biocompatibility. In the past five years, substantial advances have been achieved in the rational design, sustainable synthesis, and biomedical deployment of carbon dots. This mini-review surveys progress between 2020 and 2025, emphasising developments in machine learning-assisted synthesis optimisation, utilisation of renewable precursors, and the creation of high-efficiency near-infrared emitters. Particular attention is devoted to their widening biomedical repertoire, encompassing bioimaging, biosensing, drug delivery, cancer therapy, and regenerative medicine. The discussion further addresses the persistent challenges surrounding biocompatibility, biodistribution, and regulatory translation, while highlighting the growing influence of artificial intelligence in engineering next-generation carbon dots with tailored optical and biological properties. Collectively, these insights delineate the trajectory towards intelligent, safe, and eco-innovative carbon-based nanotheranostic platforms with genuine translational promise.