Microwave-assisted technologies for recycling and regeneration of spent lithium-ion batteries

The rapid growth of lithium-ion battery (LIB) deployment in electric vehicles and energy storage systems has led to an increasing volume of end-of-life batteries, highlighting the urgent need for efficient and sustainable recycling technologies. Microwave thermal treatment has recently emerged as a promising approach for LIB recycling due to its unique internal heating mechanism, rapid heating rate, and high energy efficiency. This review systematically summarizes the recent progress of microwave-assisted technologies in the recycling and regeneration of spent LIB materials. The fundamental principles of microwave-matter interaction are first introduced, followed by a comprehensive discussion of its applications in key recycling processes, including pretreatment, carbothermal reduction, and hydrometallurgical leaching. Microwave heating can significantly accelerate the decomposition of binders, enhance reduction reactions, and improve leaching kinetics, thereby enabling faster metal recovery with lower energy consumption. In addition, microwave-assisted strategies for the direct regeneration of degraded electrode materials, such as graphite anodes and cathode materials (e.g., LiCoO₂ and LiFePO₄), are highlighted. Overall, microwave technology provides an energy-efficient and low-carbon pathway for the high-value recycling of spent LIBs and represents a promising direction toward establishing sustainable battery recycling systems.