Engineering Metal-Organic Frameworks with Ag, Zn, and Cu for Enhanced Antimicrobial Efficacy: From Fundamentals to Antibacterial Strategies, and Challenges

The growing threat of antibiotic‑resistant bacteria necessitates the development of novel antibacterial strategies. This review examines metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) incorporating silver (Ag), zinc (Zn), and copper (Cu) as promising antibacterial agents. These MOFs exhibit multiple antibacterial mechanisms, including the controlled release of metal ions, the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and the direct disruption of bacterial cell structures. Furthermore, this review discusses key design considerations, such as the selection of appropriate metal centers, enhancement of structural stability, regulation of ion release, and surface modification strategies to improve antibacterial efficacy while maintaining biocompatibility. Comparing them, Ag-MOFs are the strongest against many bacteria but can be toxic; Zn-MOFs are biocompatible and help healing; Cu-MOFs are cost-effective and use redox reactions well. We review synthesis methods (from conventional heating to green grinding) and applications in medicine, environmental remediation, and industry, and we cite recent high‑impact studies reporting high antibacterial efficiencies against challenging strains under defined conditions (e.g., MIC‑based or time‑kill assays). We critically discuss limitations-long‑term stability, mechanistic clarity, and biosafety-and propose future directions, including on‑demand MOFs, hybrid materials, and coordinated translational efforts.