Digital literacy equity in AI-enhanced English learning: Access, participation, and implications for language...

Despite the rapid integration of artificial intelligence (AI) into English language education, significant disparities persist in learners' ability to benefit from AI-enhanced learning environments. Existing research has largely emphasized technological access, leaving insufficient empirical attention to the roles of digital literacy, participation, and learner agency in shaping equitable learning outcomes. This study addresses this gap by examining digital literacy equity in AI-enhanced English learning through a quantitative cross-sectional design. Quantitative data were collected from 220 tertiary-level English language learners using validated survey instruments and analyzed using descriptive statistics, regression, mediation, and group comparison analyses. The findings reveal that digital and AI literacy significantly predict learner participation and agency, which in turn mediate learning outcomes. Learners with lower literacy levels demonstrated reduced engagement and weaker outcomes despite comparable access to AI tools, highlighting the persistent digital divide. The study's originality lies in empirically modeling participation and agency as co-mediating mechanisms linking literacy to learning outcomes, offering critical insights for equity-centered AI integration and language education policy.