From Atoms to Autonomy: The Carbon Revolution in Triboelectric Nanogenerators Toward Self-Powered Electronics

Triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs) have emerged as promising self-powered systems capable of harvesting low-frequency mechanical energy for wearable electronics, sensors, and human-machine interfaces. Among various material strategies, carbon-based materials have attracted significant attention due to their tunable surface chemistry, electrical conductivity, and structural versatility. This review systematically analyzes the structure-property-application relationship in carbon-based TENGs by correlating material dimensionality and surface characteristics with charge generation, transport, and trapping behaviors. A wide range of carbon materials, including carbon quantum dots, graphene derivatives, carbon nanotubes, and porous carbon frameworks, are comparatively discussed to reveal their distinct roles in enhancing triboelectric performance. Particular emphasis is placed on the mechanistic understanding of how atomic-scale features, such as functional groups, defects, and morphology, govern macroscopic device outputs including voltage, current, and power density. Key challenges and future directions toward scalable, high-performance, and sustainable carbon-based TENGs are outlined.