Cellulose-Based Biodegradable and Flexible Piezoelectric Materials Toward Energy-Harvesting Systems: A Review

Scientists have been working diligently to develop environmentally friendly piezoelectric materials that meet the growing demand for renewable, biocompatible, and flexible power sources. Common piezoelectric materials such as poly(vinylidene fluoride) and lead zirconate titanate are not practical due to their toxicity, environmental persistence, and short lifespan. Because of its inherent piezoelectricity, flexibility, biocompatibility, and biodegradability, cellulose, the most prevalent renewable biopolymer, is an excellent substitute. It is currently challenging to achieve performance optimization, environmental stability, uniform benchmarking, regeneration, and large-scale commercialization. Cellulose-derived materials possess considerable potential because they originate from renewable biomass resources, exhibit built-in piezoelectricity, are flexible, and degrade naturally. This paper provides a comprehensive examination of the fundamental principles of cellulose piezoelectricity and discusses several forms of cellulose-based piezoelectric materials, including composites. We also examine the manufacturing and processing of nanogenerators and wearable sensors, which are examples of biodegradable, flexible energy-harvesting devices, and their interactions with these devices. We provide an in-depth review of recent advances in performance, including piezoelectric constants, device output, stability, and the roles of structural engineering, alignment, recycling and regeneration and hybridization. We also explore potential avenues for future research, including scalable green processing, green composites, and additive manufacturing. At the same time, we thoroughly examine the supply chain, potential revenue streams, industry growth, and market readiness. By combining materials research, longevity evaluation, and techno-economic perspectives, this study offers a translational framework for high-performance, regenerative, and economically feasible cellulose-based piezoelectric devices. problems such as manufacturability, lower output than inorganic piezoelectrics, and sensitivity to moisture. Cellulose-based piezoelectrics hold significant potential as self-sufficient, eco-friendly electronics in fields such as the Internet of Things (IoT), biomedicine, and environmental protection.