Active RNA synthesis patterns nuclear condensates

Biomolecular condensates are membraneless compartments that organize biochemical processes in cells. In contrast to well-understood mechanisms describing how condensates form and dissolve, the principles underlying condensate patterning-including their size, number, and spacing in the cell-remain largely unknown. We hypothesized that RNA, a key regulator of condensate formation and dissolution, influences condensate patterning. Using nucleolar fibrillar centers (FCs) as a model condensate, we found that inhibiting ribosomal RNA synthesis significantly alters the patterning of FCs. Physical theory and experimental observations support a model whereby active RNA synthesis generates a non-equilibrium state that arrests condensate coarsening and thus contributes to condensate patterning. Altering FC condensate patterning by expression of the FC component treacle ribosome biogenesis factor 1 (TCOF1) impairs ribosomal RNA processing, linking condensate patterning to biological function. These results reveal how non-equilibrium states driven by active chemical processes regulate condensate patterning, which is important for cellular biochemistry and function.