Biliary Microbiota in Health and Disease: Clinical Implications in Lithiasis, Infection, and Antimicrobial Resistance

The biliary tract, long considered a sterile environment, is now recognized to harbor a resident microbiota with important implications for health and disease. This review aims to summarize current knowledge on the composition and function of the biliary microbiota in physiological conditions, and its alterations in pathological states such as infection and lithiasis, with a particular focus on antimicrobial resistance. In healthy individuals, the biliary microbiota appears to be shaped by bile acids and gut-bile axis interactions, playing a role in local immune modulation. In disease, microbial dysbiosis contributes to conditions such as acute cholecystitis, cholangitis, and gallstone formation, with distinct microbial signatures linked to specific stone types. Common biliary pathogens, including E. coli, Enterococcus spp., Pseudomonas spp., and K. pneumoniae, often exhibit concerning resistance patterns, impacting therapeutic strategies. Emerging evidence highlights the interplay between intestinal and biliary microbiota, suggesting potential diagnostic and prognostic applications. Understanding these dynamics opens new avenues for microbiota-informed antibiotic stewardship, targeted microbiota modulation, and precision medicine approaches. Further research, particularly culture-independent and longitudinal studies, is crucial to fully elucidate the clinical significance of the biliary microbiota and to integrate microbiota profiling into patient management strategies.