Related Experiment Video
Updated: May 28, 2026

The Other End of the Leash: An Experimental Test to Analyze How Owners Interact with Their Pet Dogs
Published on: October 13, 2017
Parenting Across European Cultures: Parental Practices and Adolescent Adjustment in Germany and Spain
Joan García-Perales1, Joan García-Ruiz2, Desamparados Ruiz Gil3
1Department of Methodology of the Behavioral Sciences, University of Valencia, Av. Blasco Ibáñez, 21, 46010 Valencia, Spain.
Abstract:
This study examines whether the association between parenting styles and adolescent adjustment reflects universal principles or culturally embedded processes, comparing adolescents from Germany (n = 395) and Spain (n = 331). Grounded in the bidimensional model of parental socialization (warmth × strictness), four styles were identified: authoritative, indulgent, authoritarian, and neglectful. Participants (Mage = 15.6 years) completed measures of parental socialization (ESPA29) and multidimensional self-concept (AF5); academic achievement was obtained from school records; and substance use was self-reported. A cross-sectional design was employed. Multivariate analyses of variance that revealed warmth was positively associated with all self-concept domains and negatively with substance use, whereas strictness showed weak or negative links. Significant Parenting Style × Country interactions emerged for academic self-concept, achievement, and substance use. In the Spanish sample, indulgent parenting exhibited a distinct pattern, particularly with respect to academic self-concept. Among German adolescents, both indulgent and authoritative styles yielded favorable outcomes, with authoritative parenting demonstrating protective effects against substance use. These findings suggest that the effectiveness of the authoritative style may not be uniform across contexts and underscore the importance of cultural factors in defining optimal parenting, supporting a contextualist model of adolescent socialization across European contexts.
Related Concept Videos
Parenting Styles
Authoritarian Parenting
This style is strict and controlling, with little room for open dialogue. Authoritarian parents demand obedience and often enforce rules with minimal warmth. Children raised this way may lack social skills and initiative, usually comparing themselves to others unfavorably.
Authoritative Parenting
This...
Socioemotional Experience and Gender Development
Influence of Parents and Peers on Identity
Parental Influence on Identity Development
Parents serve as primary guides and managers in an adolescent's life, offering support instrumental in decision-making and personal growth. This guiding role...
Sources of Self-Esteem I: Family Experience
Self-Evaluation: Self-Enhancement and Self-Verification
Ethnic Identity within a Larger Culture
