Silk Fibroin-Polyphenol Gels and Hydrogels: Molecular Interactions, Gelation Strategies, Responsive Behaviors, and...

Silk fibroin (SF)-polyphenol systems have emerged as a versatile class of gels and hydrogels in which supramolecular interactions and dynamic crosslinking regulate network formation, responsiveness, and multifunctional performance. Polyphenols interact with SF through hydrogen bonding, hydrophobic interactions, π-π stacking, metal coordination, and covalent crosslinking, thereby modulating conformational transitions, gelation behavior, structural stability, and interfacial functionality. These interaction mechanisms enable the development of SF-polyphenol gel systems with tunable mechanical properties, wet adhesion, antioxidant activity, self-healing capability, and stimuli responsiveness. This review summarizes recent advances in SF-polyphenol gels and hydrogels, with particular emphasis on molecular interaction mechanisms, gelation and fabrication strategies, responsive behaviors, and structure-property relationships. Representative preparation approaches, including solution blending, electrospinning, impregnation-adsorption, enzymatic crosslinking, metal-phenolic coordination, and photo-initiated processing, are systematically discussed in relation to their effects on network architecture and functional output. The responsive behaviors of these systems under pH, redox, electrical, thermal, and optical stimuli are also analyzed from the perspective of dynamic gel networks and adaptive material design. Emerging applications of SF-polyphenol gels in bioadhesives, delivery platforms, flexible bioelectronics, wound-related materials, and sustainable functional systems are highlighted. Current limitations associated with polyphenol instability, formulation sensitivity, reproducibility, and scale-up are critically discussed, together with future opportunities for predictive design of gel-based natural polymer systems. This review provides a comprehensive framework for understanding SF-polyphenol gelation and for guiding the development of next-generation multifunctional gels and hydrogels.