Phage Therapy in Combating Multidrug-Resistant Gram-Negative Pathogens: A Scoping Review

Background: The emergence of multidrug-resistant (MDR) Gram-negative pathogens, namely Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Acinetobacter baumannii and Helicobacter pylori, necessitates urgent therapeutic alternatives. This scoping review aimed to summarize the current evidence on the efficacy of lytic bacteriophages against these critical MDR pathogens, and to identify existing research gaps and implementation challenges. Methods: The literature search was conducted by searching PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus AI for studies published from 2015 to 2025. The inclusion criteria focused on experimental and human studies evaluating phage therapy against MDR, extensively drug-resistant (XDR), or pan-drug-resistant (PDR) strains in the four target species. A total of 172 articles were included. Results: A number of studies showed an increasing trend (2015-2025), focusing mainly on K. pneumoniae (n = 65), P. aeruginosa (n = 55), and A. baumannii (n = 48). No eligible studies for MDR H. pylori were found. All 172 studies confirmed lytic activity, with phage cocktails showing superior antibacterial activity than single phages in four studies. Phages also demonstrated antibiofilm activity (n = 44). Most animal studies reported successful bacterial reduction in animals treated with phages, and 87.5% of 23 human case studies reported patient improvement or infection clearance. However, heterogeneity in the types of animal models used and in dosage and administration routes in human studies was notable. Conclusions: Lytic bacteriophages exhibit strong potential as a new therapeutic option. Key challenges include the lack of data for MDR H. pylori, heterogeneity in animal models, and a paucity of large-scale human clinical trials. Future research must prioritize standardization, mechanistic studies, and conducting robust human trials to enable clinical translation and regulatory acceptance.