Exposure of Farmers and Spouses to Glyphosate in Morocco: Urinary Levels and Predictors of Exposure

Levels of glyphosate and their metabolite AMPA were measured in urine of farmers and their spouses that lived in intensively farmed area in Morocco. The levels were used as proxies to determine the exposure of these target population to herbicides. Determinants of exposure to glyphosate were also assessed. Urine was collected from 104 farmers, 50 spouses and 50 people from the general adult population and information from sociodemographic characteristics and occupational exposure was collected from questionnaires administrated to farmers and spouses. The detection frequency was 67% for glyphosate and 62% for AMPA among farmers, and 56% for glyphosate and 48% for AMPA among spouses, with the mean concentration of 1.22 μg L^-1 and 0.85 μg L^-1 among farmers, and 0.58 μg L^-1 and 0.50 μg L^-1 among spouses, respectively. Nevertheless, mean values of glyphosate and AMPA for general population were below the reported quantification limits. Multiple regression analysis showed that smoking status, applying glyphosate in the last 7 days, and glove use are the most important contribution to urinary levels of glyphosate and AMPA among farmers, and proximity of home to spraying area, and herbicides drift enters house are the main predictors of urinary glyphosate and AMPA exposure among spouses. The GMs of estimated daily intake were 1.26 and 1.39 µg/kg BW/day for glyphosate and AMPA among farmers, and 0.56 and 0.96 µg/kg BW/day for glyphosate and AMPA among spouses, respectively. This study provides further evidence on factors associated with glyphosate and AMPA exposure, especially in developing countries.