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The information-processing theory of cognitive development centers on fundamental mental processes, including attention, memory, and problem-solving skills. Researchers in this field examine how cognitive abilities, such as working memory, evolve and influence children's overall development. Studies indicate that children with stronger working memory tend to excel in reading comprehension, math, and problem-solving compared to peers with less efficient memory skills. Low working memory is also...
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 28, 2026

Assessment of Stress Effects on Cognitive Flexibility using an Operant Strategy Shifting Paradigm
07:26

Assessment of Stress Effects on Cognitive Flexibility using an Operant Strategy Shifting Paradigm

Published on: May 4, 2020

Does neurodevelopmental load predict cognitive flexibility?

Alexandre Carpentier1,2,3,4, Alexandre Durand1,2,4, Mickael Naassila2,3,4

  • 1Service Pathologies Résistantes (SPR), Pôle Hospitalo-Universitaire Évaluation et Parcours de Soins en Psychiatrie Adulte, Centre Hospitalier Isarien-EPSM de l'Oise, Clermont de l'Oise, 60600, France.

Schizophrenia Research. Cognition
|May 27, 2026
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Cognitive flexibility impairments are common in schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and neurodevelopmental disorders. Higher education levels appear to mitigate these cognitive deficits, suggesting environmental factors play a key role.

Keywords:
Bipolar disorderCognitive flexibilityLevel of educationNeurodevelopmental disorderSchizophrenia

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Area of Science:

  • Neuroscience
  • Psychiatry
  • Cognitive Science

Background:

  • Cognitive flexibility (CF) impairments are a core feature of schizophrenia (SCZ), bipolar disorder (BD), and neurodevelopmental disorders (NDD).
  • These cognitive deficits impact functional outcomes and are linked to neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative processes.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate the prevalence of cognitive flexibility impairments across SCZ, BD, and NDD.
  • To identify factors influencing cognitive flexibility deficits in these clinical populations.

Main Methods:

  • Retrospective analysis of 135 clinical records (75 SCZ, 29 BD, 31 NDD).
  • Cognitive flexibility assessed using Trail Making Test part B (TMT-B); impairments defined as scores ≤ -2 standard deviations.
  • Multiple linear regression used to adjust for confounding variables.

Main Results:

  • Significantly higher rates of CF impairments were observed in NDD (64.5%) and SCZ (57.3%) compared to BD (34.5%).
  • No significant difference in impairment rates between NDD and SCZ groups.
  • Mean education level was the sole significant factor influencing CF impairments after adjusting for confounders.

Conclusions:

  • Cognitive flexibility impairments are transdiagnostic, affecting SCZ, BD, and NDD.
  • Education level plays a critical role in mitigating cognitive flexibility deficits.
  • Findings support the interplay of neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative models, with education potentially delaying cognitive decline.