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Gross Anatomy of the Lungs01:17

Gross Anatomy of the Lungs

The lungs are a pair of vital organs connected to the trachea via the left and right bronchi. The base of these organs meets the dome-shaped muscle known as the diaphragm. Encased by the pleurae, the lungs contact the mediastinum. The right lung is shorter yet wider, and has a larger volume than the left lung. The left lung has an indentation known as the cardiac notch. The superior region of the lungs is referred to as the apex, whereas the base is the lower region near the diaphragm. The...
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The neural regulation of respiration is a meticulously coordinated process primarily controlled by the respiratory centers located within the brainstem. These centers, composed of specialized neurons, transmit nerve impulses that control the contraction and relaxation of our respiratory muscles.
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Updated: May 31, 2026

Sex Stratified Neuronal Cultures to Study Ischemic Cell Death Pathways
10:44

Sex Stratified Neuronal Cultures to Study Ischemic Cell Death Pathways

Published on: December 9, 2013

Hardwired differences: Sexually dimorphic neural connectomes in the brain-lung axis.

Tao Wang1,2,3, Fancheng Meng1,2, Wenting Dong1,2

  • 1Department of Neurobiology and Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Science, School of Basic Medicine, the Fourth Military Medical University, Xian, Shaanxi 710032, China.

Iscience
|May 29, 2026
PubMed
Summary

Researchers discovered sex differences in brain-lung connections. Male mice show cognition-linked networks, while females have brainstem circuits for breathing, impacting respiratory disease susceptibility.

Keywords:
biological sciences

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Human Lung Dendritic Cells: Spatial Distribution and Phenotypic Identification in Endobronchial Biopsies Using Immunohistochemistry and Flow Cytometry
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Human Lung Dendritic Cells: Spatial Distribution and Phenotypic Identification in Endobronchial Biopsies Using Immunohistochemistry and Flow Cytometry

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Sex Stratified Neuronal Cultures to Study Ischemic Cell Death Pathways
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Human Lung Dendritic Cells: Spatial Distribution and Phenotypic Identification in Endobronchial Biopsies Using Immunohistochemistry and Flow Cytometry
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Human Lung Dendritic Cells: Spatial Distribution and Phenotypic Identification in Endobronchial Biopsies Using Immunohistochemistry and Flow Cytometry

Published on: January 20, 2017

Area of Science:

  • Neuroscience
  • Respiratory Physiology
  • Sex Differences Research

Background:

  • Sexual dimorphism is known in lung function and disease.
  • The central neural circuits governing these differences are largely unknown.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate sex-based differences in brain-lung connectivity.
  • To identify neural frameworks underlying sex-specific respiratory control.

Main Methods:

  • Utilized retrograde trans-synaptic tracing with pseudorabies virus.
  • Applied whole-brain mapping techniques in mice.

Main Results:

  • Identified fundamental sex differences in brain-lung neural circuits.
  • Male mice displayed anterior, cognition-associated networks with lateralization.
  • Female mice exhibited posterior, brainstem-predominant circuits for automatic respiratory control, showing integrated and modular architectures.

Conclusions:

  • Revealed a hardwired neural basis for sex-specific respiratory control.
  • Findings have implications for understanding sex disparities in respiratory disease susceptibility.