Fungal foe: exploring cotton's physiological responses to Verticillium wilt

Cotton (Gossypium spp.) is a globally important cash crop that supports the textile industry and provides valuable by-products such as edible oil and livestock feed. However, cotton productivity and fiber quality are increasingly constrained by Verticillium wilt (VW), a vascular disease caused by the soil-borne fungus Verticillium dahliae Kleb. This pathogen can persist in soil for long periods and cause substantial yield and economic losses in cotton worldwide. This review brings together current knowledge of cotton's physiological responses to VW infection, focusing on how the disease disrupts plant water relations, photosynthesis, nutrient balance, and vascular function. Environmental factors including soil type, temperature, moisture, pH, inoculum density, and nutrient availability, are examined to assess their influence on disease development and severity. The review also explores advances in management strategies such as crop rotation, irrigation, biocontrol, precision agriculture, molecular diagnostics, and breeding for host plant resistance. It emphasizes how insights into cotton's physiological responses can inform disease management, supporting earlier stress detection and more precise intervention strategies. Furthermore, incorporating physiological monitoring into breeding programs, alongside genomic selection and high-throughput phenotyping, may enhance functional resistance and yield stability under VW pressure. Understanding the complex interactions among the pathogen, host physiology, and environmental conditions is essential for designing proactive, sustainable strategies to mitigate VW impacts and ensure the long-term productivity of the cotton industry.