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Related Concept Videos

Absolute Entropies and the Third Law of Thermodynamics01:23

Absolute Entropies and the Third Law of Thermodynamics

Ludwig Edward Boltzmann developed a definition for entropy, which stated that absolute entropy is proportional to the natural logarithm of the number of possible combinations of particles. Entropy stands alone among state functions as the only one whose absolute values can be determined.Consider a gas sample confined to a container. As the container expands, the energy levels of gas molecules become more closely spaced. This increases the number of available energy states, thereby increasing...
Entropy02:39

Entropy

Salt particles that have dissolved in water never spontaneously come back together in solution to reform solid particles. Moreover, a gas that has expanded in a vacuum remains dispersed and never spontaneously reassembles. The unidirectional nature of these phenomena is the result of a thermodynamic state function called entropy (S). Entropy is the measure of the extent to which the energy is dispersed throughout a system, or in other words, it is proportional to the degree of disorder of a...
Entropy01:18

Entropy

The first law of thermodynamics is quantitatively formulated via an equation relating the internal energy of a system, the heat exchanged by it, and the work done on it. A quantitative formulation of the second law of thermodynamics leads to defining a state function, the entropy.
When an ideal gas expands isothermally, the disorder in the gas increases. From the molecular perspective, the gas molecules have more volume to move around in.
Consider an infinitesimal step in the expansion, which...
Limits of the First Law of Thermodynamics01:22

Limits of the First Law of Thermodynamics

Spontaneous processes, like a rock falling to the ground or sodium reacting with chlorine, occur without external work and often involve a decrease in the system‘s energy. However, certain endothermic processes, such as the dissolution of sodium chloride in water, occur spontaneously even though they increase the energy of the system. This limitation suggests that the First Law of Thermodynamics, which states that the total energy of a system is constant in an isolated system, cannot fully...
The Entropy as a State Function01:14

The Entropy as a State Function

Consider an arbitrary process that moves between two specific states (A and B) in a cyclic manner. This process is reversible and broken down into smaller parts that each follow a Carnot cycle. A Carnot cycle has two isothermal (constant temperature) processes. During these processes, the ratio of the amount of heat transferred to their respective temperature remains constant. The other two processes in the Carnot cycle are also reversible but adiabatic, which means they occur without any heat...
The Uncertainty Principle04:08

The Uncertainty Principle

Werner Heisenberg considered the limits of how accurately one can measure properties of an electron or other microscopic particles. He determined that there is a fundamental limit to how accurately one can measure both a particle’s position and its momentum simultaneously. The more accurate the measurement of the momentum of a particle is known, the less accurate the position at that time is known and vice versa. This is what is now called the Heisenberg uncertainty principle. He mathematically...

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Updated: May 31, 2026

Scalable Quantum Integrated Circuits on Superconducting Two-Dimensional Electron Gas Platform
05:39

Scalable Quantum Integrated Circuits on Superconducting Two-Dimensional Electron Gas Platform

Published on: August 2, 2019

Entropy Flow at the Quantum Limit.

Marco A Jimenez-Valencia1, Parth Kumar1,2, Yiheng Xu3

  • 1Department of Physics, University of Arizona, 1118 East 4th Street, Tucson, Arizona 85721, United States.

Nano Letters
|May 29, 2026
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Quantum processes generate less heat and entropy than previously thought. New formulas accounting for free energy flow reveal lower dissipation, adhering to thermodynamic laws at low temperatures.

Keywords:
entropyquantum machinesquantum thermodynamicsquantum work

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Area of Science:

  • Thermodynamics
  • Quantum mechanics
  • Energy dissipation

Background:

  • Heat dissipation is a fundamental limit in all processes.
  • Conventional formulas for quantum heat and entropy are stringent at low temperatures.
  • These formulas omit a crucial free energy flow term.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To revise heat and entropy calculations in quantum processes.
  • To investigate the role of free energy flow at low temperatures.
  • To ensure compliance with the third law of thermodynamics.

Main Methods:

  • Analysis of steady-state and transient heat and entropy flows.
  • Study of three representative driven quantum systems.
  • Inclusion of a free energy flow term in thermodynamic calculations.

Main Results:

  • Conventional formulas for quantum heat and entropy are incomplete.
  • A new term involving free energy flow is critical at low temperatures.
  • Calculated heat dissipation is orders of magnitude lower than predicted.
  • Compliance with the third law of thermodynamics is demonstrated.

Conclusions:

  • Revised quantum thermodynamic formulas are necessary.
  • Free energy flow significantly impacts heat dissipation in quantum systems.
  • The findings reconcile quantum and macroscopic thermodynamic limits.