What drives European solidarity? Evidence on identity-based, value-based, and utilitarian explanations

This article analyses how and why individuals maintain or change their European solidarity over time using German panel data. I answer two questions: (1) Who maintains their level of European solidarity? (2) Do identity-based, value-based, or utilitarian approaches best explain change in European solidarity? I examine four dimensions of solidarity: territorial, fiscal, and welfare solidarity, and the support for European social citizenship. Despite COVID-19 and Russia's invasion of Ukraine, 44-57% of German respondents maintained stable solidarity. Stability varied little across sociodemographic groups. Those who identified more with Europe and on the economic and transnationalist left were less likely to reduce their solidarity. Transnational political orientation is the main driver of intra-individual change in European solidarity. When individuals come to identify more with Europe, they increase their solidarity, whereas national identification has inconsistent effects. Utilitarian factors, including exposure to regional crises, show little effect on individual solidarity. The findings add nuance to identity-based and utilitarian explanations of how individuals develop and maintain European solidarity.