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Halogens

Halogens

Group 17 elements, known as halogens, are nonmetals. At room temperature, fluorine and chlorine are gases, bromine is a liquid, and iodine a solid. Astatine is a highly unstable radioactive element, so currently, most of its properties are unknown due to its short half-life. Tennessine is a synthetic element also predicted to be in this group.

Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution: Fluorination and Iodination of Benzene

Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution: Fluorination and Iodination of Benzene

Bromination and chlorination of aromatic rings by electrophilic aromatic substitution reactions are easily achieved, but fluorination and iodination are difficult to achieve. Fluorine is so reactive that its reaction with benzene is difficult to control, resulting in poor yields of monofluoroaromatic products. To address this, Selectfluor reagent is used as a fluorine source in which a fluorine atom is bonded to a positively charged nitrogen.

FISH - Fluorescent In-situ Hybridization

FISH - Fluorescent In-situ Hybridization

Fluorescence in situ hybridization, or FISH, was developed in the early 1980s and has quickly become one of the most widely used techniques in cytogenetics. Labeled probes are used to bind complementary DNA or RNA sequences on a chromosome or in a region within a cell. Earlier, the probes could only be obtained by cloning or reverse transcription of a DNA template. Currently, the probe oligonucleotides can be synthesized synthetically. Additionally, with the advancement of optical techniques,...

Drug Regulation

Drug Regulation

Drug regulation encompasses the management of drug usage by evaluating its safety and efficacy through assessments conducted by regulatory authorities. Regrettably, the history of drug regulation is marred by several catastrophic events. One such incident is the Elixir Sulfanilamide tragedy, in which the toxic compound diethyl glycol was included in a sweet-tasting medication, leading to numerous fatalities. This event prompted the enactment of the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act in 1938. Under...

Minerals

Minerals

Minerals are essential nutrients that the human body needs in small amounts to work properly. They play a vital role in many bodily functions, such as building strong bones and transmitting nerve impulses. Some minerals are needed for hormone production or to maintain a normal heartbeat. Major minerals include calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, sodium, chlorine, and magnesium, while trace minerals include iron, manganese, copper, iodine, zinc, cobalt, fluoride, and selenium.

Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution: Chlorination and Bromination of Benzene

Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution: Chlorination and Bromination of Benzene

Chlorination and bromination are important classes of electrophilic aromatic substitutions, where benzene reacts with chlorine or bromine in the presence of a Lewis acid catalyst to give halogenated substitution products. A Lewis acid such as aluminium chloride or ferric chloride catalyzes the chlorination, and ferric bromide catalyzes the bromination reactions. During the bromination of alkenes, bromine polarizes and becomes electrophilic. However, in the bromination of benzene, the bromine...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 2, 2026

Micro-dissection of Enamel Organ from Mandibular Incisor of Rats Exposed to Environmental Toxicants

Micro-dissection of Enamel Organ from Mandibular Incisor of Rats Exposed to Environmental Toxicants

Published on: March 29, 2018

Fluoridation in Chile: historical context, current programs, challenges, and future directions.

Rodrigo Mariño^1,2,3, Melisa Münzenmayer^4,5, Carlos Zaror^2,6

¹Melbourne Dental School, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.

Frontiers in Oral Health

|June 1, 2026

Summary

This summary is machine-generated.

Chile

Keywords:

Chile community water fluoridation fluoride programs oral health public health policy

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Last Updated: Jun 2, 2026

Micro-dissection of Enamel Organ from Mandibular Incisor of Rats Exposed to Environmental Toxicants

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Published on: March 29, 2018

Semi-Automated Planimetric Quantification of Dental Plaque Using an Intraoral Fluorescence Camera

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Published on: January 27, 2023

Area of Science:

Public Health
Dental Research
Health Policy

Background:

Chile has a long history of implementing fluoride programs since the 1950s.
Fluoridation is recognized as a key strategy for preventing dental caries and enhancing oral health.
Fluoride initiatives align with global health objectives, including the UN Sustainable Development Goals.

Purpose of the Study:

To examine the history, current status, challenges, and future of fluoridation programs in Chile.
To assess the effectiveness, safety, and cost-effectiveness of Chile's oral health fluoride policies.
To provide insights for policymakers and practitioners to improve fluoridation strategies.

Main Methods:

Historical review of fluoridation policies and programs in Chile.
Analysis of government and health organization efforts in fluoride implementation.
Description of current water and milk fluoridation initiatives.

Main Results:

Water fluoridation in Chile began in the 1950s and has seen widespread implementation due to government support.
Current programs include water and milk fluoridation, highlighting the importance of fluoride for oral health.
Challenges include public misinformation and regulatory inconsistencies affecting program maintenance.

Conclusions:

Fluoridation remains a vital public health strategy for dental caries prevention in Chile.
Addressing misinformation and regulatory issues is crucial for effective fluoridation programs.
Integrating new technologies can enhance community education and monitoring for improved oral health outcomes.