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Related Concept Videos

Standard Precaution01:26

Standard Precaution

Standard precautions are the minimum infection control safeguards used while caring for all patients, irrespective of their disease condition. They help prevent the spread of common infectious microorganisms to healthcare workers, patients, and visitors in all healthcare settings.
Hand hygiene is the most crucial means to prevent the transmission of disease. Employers are legally required to provide their workers with personal protective equipment (PPE) to minimize exposure or contact with...
Infection01:20

Infection

When a pathogen enters the body and reproduces, it can cause an infection, damage body cells, and cause illness symptoms that eventually lead to disease. Therefore, its prevention requires breaking the chain of infection.
The chain begins with pathogens: bacteria, viruses, fungi, prions, or parasites such as protozoa helminths. These can be present on the skin as transient or resident flora, or they can be acquired from the environment. Identifying and treating the type of infection and...
Cleaning, Sterilization, and Disinfection01:30

Cleaning, Sterilization, and Disinfection

Cleaning, disinfection, and sterilization are the methods that help to break the infection chain and prevent disease.
Cleaning
The cleaning process usually involves using water with detergents or enzymatic cleaner and removing foreign material from objects and surfaces, including organic material such as body fluids or inorganic material like soil. Cleaning is performed before high-level disinfection and sterilization because foreign materials on the cover of the devices interfere with process...
Transmission-based Precautions II: Airborne and Protective Environment01:25

Transmission-based Precautions II: Airborne and Protective Environment

Transmission-based precautions are for patients infected or suspected to be infected (or colonized) with organisms posing a significant risk to others. The transmission precautions include airborne and protective environment precautions.
Airborne precautions:
Use airborne precautions when treating patients known or suspected to have diseases that spread through the air—for example, tuberculosis or measles. These organisms are present in smaller droplets expelled by an infected person and...
Healthcare Associated Infections II: Preventive Measures01:22

Healthcare Associated Infections II: Preventive Measures

Essential infection prevention measures are based on the knowledge of the infection chain, the modes of transmission in healthcare settings, and the use of the best practices in all healthcare settings. Compulsory public reporting of healthcare-associated infection rates is needed to allow individuals and the community to make informed choices regarding selecting a healthcare facility.
The best practices for preventing healthcare-associated infections include hand hygiene, patient risk...
Asepsis01:28

Asepsis

The condition of being free from disease-causing living pathogens is asepsis. Aseptic techniques include a set of standard practices to achieve asepsis. An example is the regular environmental cleaning of all parts of the healthcare facility and hand hygiene at home before preparing or eating food. Medical and surgical asepsis in healthcare practice protects patients from harmful pathogens, minimizes the risk of contamination of susceptible sites, and reduces the risk of infection transmission.

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 3, 2026

Safety Precautions and Operating Procedures in an (A)BSL-4 Laboratory: 3. Aerobiology
11:13

Safety Precautions and Operating Procedures in an (A)BSL-4 Laboratory: 3. Aerobiology

Published on: October 3, 2016

Service Ready Ambulance Surfaces and Emergency Medical Services Clinicians are Routinely Contaminated with Clinically

Diego Schaps1, Bobby G Warren2,3, Julia Isaacson4

  • 1Department of Surgery, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina.

Prehospital Emergency Care
|June 1, 2026
PubMed
Summary

Ambulances and emergency medical services (EMS) clinicians carry clinically important pathogens (CIPs) before and after shifts. Contamination persists, highlighting the need for improved hygiene and cleaning protocols to reduce infection risks in medical transport.

Related Experiment Videos

Last Updated: Jun 3, 2026

Safety Precautions and Operating Procedures in an (A)BSL-4 Laboratory: 3. Aerobiology
11:13

Safety Precautions and Operating Procedures in an (A)BSL-4 Laboratory: 3. Aerobiology

Published on: October 3, 2016

Area of Science:

  • Infection Control
  • Public Health
  • Microbiology

Background:

  • Ambulances and emergency medical services (EMS) clinicians can be vectors for clinically important pathogens (CIPs).
  • Understanding the extent and sources of contamination is crucial for preventing healthcare-associated infections.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To characterize the contamination of ambulances and EMS clinicians with CIPs before and after a work shift.
  • To identify the prevalence of specific pathogens like MRSA, MSSA, and VRE in the pre-hospital environment.

Main Methods:

  • A prospective observational study involving 20 ambulances and 27 EMS clinicians over seven months.
  • Collection of samples from surfaces, uniforms, and nasal passages before and after shifts, with pre-shift disinfection of ambulance surfaces.
  • Testing for methicillin-resistant/sensitive Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA, MSSA), vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus (VRE), and Clostridioides difficile.

Main Results:

  • 18.5% of all samples harbored at least one CIP; MSSA was most common, followed by MRSA and VRE.
  • 63.1% of clinicians and 60% of ambulances were contaminated when ready for service, with similar post-shift levels.
  • Emergency 9-1-1 ambulances showed higher contamination rates than non-emergency transport vehicles.

Conclusions:

  • EMS clinicians and ambulances are frequently contaminated with CIPs, with contamination accumulating during shifts.
  • Pre-shift contamination suggests clinicians may introduce pathogens into the medical transport setting.
  • Enhanced uniform hygiene, thorough terminal cleaning, and targeted interventions are necessary to mitigate infection risks.