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Structure and Function of Erythrocytes01:29

Structure and Function of Erythrocytes

There are between 4.2 and 6 million erythrocytes, also known as red blood cells, in every microliter of blood. These cells are small, flattened biconcave discs with centers that are depressed.
The erythrocyte plasma membrane is associated with proteins such as spectrin, which forms a flexible cytoplasmic meshwork. This meshwork allows erythrocytes to twist, turn, become cup-shaped, and regain their biconcave shape as they pass through narrow capillaries. Additionally, erythrocytes can form...
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Erythrocytes, also known as red blood cells, constantly move through blood capillaries. As a result, they damage their plasma membrane due to the continuous friction. Typically, after 100 to 120 days, erythrocytes become rigid and fragile as they wear out. As they pass through small vessels in the spleen and liver, they can get trapped and break apart into fragments.
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Erythropoiesis01:14

Erythropoiesis

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Stahl et al. discovered exosomes in 1983, but the exosomes were initially considered waste products released from the...

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Size Exclusion Chromatography for Separating Extracellular Vesicles from Conditioned Cell Culture Media
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Engineering red cells across scales: Red Blood Cells (RBCs) and RBC-derived extracellular vesicles.

Ziyu Zhou1, Gloria Mei En Chan1, Jiahai Shi1

  • 1NUS Synthetic Biology for Clinical and Technological Innovation (SynCTI), National Centre for Engineering Biology (NCEB), Synthetic Biology Translational Research Programme, and Department of Biochemistry, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore.

Current Opinion in Biotechnology
|June 1, 2026
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Red-cell therapeutics, including intact red blood cells (RBCs) and RBC-derived extracellular vesicles (RBC-EVs), offer distinct advantages based on their engineering strategies. Understanding these distinct approaches is key to advancing red-cell based therapies.

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08:32

Flow Cytometric Analysis of Extracellular Vesicles from Cell-conditioned Media

Published on: February 12, 2019

Area of Science:

  • Biotechnology and Biomedical Engineering
  • Cellular Therapeutics
  • Nanomedicine

Background:

  • Current red-cell therapeutics are often categorized broadly, yet they utilize distinct aspects of erythroid biology.
  • Intact red blood cells (RBCs) are long-lived, deformable cells suited for applications requiring intravascular persistence and surface interactions.
  • RBC-derived extracellular vesicles (RBC-EVs) are smaller, operate on shorter timescales, and focus on cellular uptake and intracellular delivery.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To differentiate red-cell therapeutics based on their distinct engineering strategies rather than solely by disease indication.
  • To outline the key engineering challenges and strategies for both intact RBCs and RBC-EVs.
  • To highlight future directions for advancing red-cell therapeutic platforms.

Main Methods:

  • Review of existing literature and engineering principles for intact RBCs and RBC-EVs.
  • Analysis of therapeutic strategies including covalent conjugation, affinity anchoring, lipid insertion, and genetic engineering for intact RBCs.
  • Examination of vesicle generation, cargo loading, surface functionalization, and intracellular delivery for RBC-EVs.

Main Results:

  • Intact RBC therapeutics require preserving cell integrity while adding function through various surface modification techniques.
  • RBC-EV therapeutics focus on efficient cargo delivery, targeting, and intracellular activity, distinct from intact RBC functions.
  • Both platforms face challenges in efficacy, manufacturing complexity, and standardization.

Conclusions:

  • Red-cell therapeutics are best understood and advanced by considering their specific engineering strategies (intact RBCs vs. RBC-EVs).
  • Future progress necessitates scalable erythroid sources, standardized processing, and tailored release criteria for each therapeutic platform.
  • Optimizing engineering routes to enhance efficacy while minimizing perturbation and manufacturing complexity is crucial for clinical translation.