Artificial intelligence in forensic age assessment: a systematic review

Forensic age assessment plays a crucial role in medico-legal contexts where an individual's chronological age cannot be reliably documented, such as immigration procedures. In recent years, artificial intelligence (AI) has increasingly been applied to automate and improve the accuracy of age estimation methods. However, the forensic applicability of these approaches, particularly in relation to legally relevant age thresholds, remains incompletely characterized. A systematic review was conducted in accordance with the PRISMA 2020 guidelines. MEDLINE (via PubMed) and Scopus were searched from database inception to 1 March 2026. Studies were included if they applied AI techniques to age estimation in a forensic or medico-legal context and reported quantitative performance metrics. The search identified 1,197 records, of which 48 studies met the inclusion criteria. Most studies investigated imaging-based approaches, particularly panoramic dental radiographs, while others explored skeletal imaging, DNA methylation markers, or emerging molecular biomarkers. Convolutional neural networks were the most frequently used modelling approach. AI models applied to dental radiographs commonly reported mean absolute errors between approximately 0.5 and 1.5 years, whereas DNA methylation-based models showed errors between 3 and 5 years. MRI-based skeletal models often achieved prediction errors close to one year. However, relatively few studies specifically evaluated classification performance around legally relevant thresholds such as 18 years. AI shows considerable potential for improving the automation and reproducibility of forensic age estimation. Further research with larger and more diverse datasets, external validation, and standardized reporting is needed to ensure reliable implementation in medico-legal practice.