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Updated: Jun 6, 2026
Development and Evaluation of 3D-Printed Cardiovascular Phantoms for Interventional Planning and Training
Published on: January 18, 2021
Development and validation of a 3D printed phantom for image quality assessment in fluoroscopy
Túlio Guilherme Soares Marques1, Diana Rodrigues de Pina2
1Institute of Bioscience, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Botucatu, São Paulo, Brazil.
Background:
Low-contrast detectability is a key image-quality parameter in fluoroscopy, directly influencing diagnostic accuracy and patient safety. Commercial phantoms such as the CDRAD provide reliable assessments but are costly and lack flexibility for routine use.
Purpose:
To develop and validate a low-cost 3D-printed phantom for fluoroscopy quality control, designed with low-contrast performance similar to the commercial reference standard CDRAD, and to offer a reproducible framework for clinical implementation. This represents an original and accessible strategy for systematic fluoroscopy image-quality assessment.
Methods:
The proposed 3D-printed low-contrast phantom (hereafter referred to as the LC phantom) was modeled in a Computer-Aided Design (CAD) software and printed in polylactic acid (PLA) with 100% infill. It features a modular circular design adaptable to different fields of view. Quantitative validation included correlation between theoretical subject contrast (SC) and image-based contrast-to-noise ratio (CNR), with comparisons to the CDRAD under clinically representative beam qualities (65-100 kVp), using additional copper filtration to produce hardened X-ray spectra typical of fluoroscopic practice. Subjective comparison of both phantoms was performed through multicenter testing on four fluoroscopy systems (three mobile and one fixed).
Results:
CNR increased consistently with hole depth for both phantoms across all beam qualities, with linear regression models yielding coefficients of determination (R2) ranging from 0.88 to 0.99. Visual evaluations yielded mean low-contrast thresholds of 3.11 ± 0.26%, 2.66 ± 0.31%, and 2.70 ± 0.27% for 65, 80, and 100 kVp, respectively, with a maximum deviation of 0.10 SC units relative to the reference phantom, indicating reproducible and consistent performance across the evaluated beam qualities.
Conclusions:
The proposed LC phantom is a practical and affordable tool for routine fluoroscopy image quality assessment. Its methodology can be adapted to different beam qualities and institutional protocols, supporting harmonized and accessible image-quality assessment in clinical practice.
