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Related Concept Videos

Diencephalon: Thalamus and Information Relay01:27

Diencephalon: Thalamus and Information Relay

The thalamus, often called “the gateway to the cerebral cortex,” is vital in processing and directing sensory and motor signals throughout the brain. Almost all inputs destined for the cerebral cortex, except for olfactory signals, are relayed through the thalamus. The thalamus is  a sophisticated relay station, channeling information from various brain regions to the cerebral cortex, as well as a filter, prioritizing certain signals over others based on current physiological states or needs.
Parasympathetic Signaling01:30

Parasympathetic Signaling

Parasympathetic signaling plays a crucial role in regulating various physiological processes. It involves the release of acetylcholine (ACh) by parasympathetic neurons, which can have localized and short-lived effects. The majority of ACh released is rapidly inactivated at the synapse by the enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE), which hydrolyzes Ach into choline and acetate. Additionally, the tissue cholinesterase deactivates any ACh diffusing into the surrounding tissues.
The effects of...
Cholinergic Neurons: Neurotransmission01:23

Cholinergic Neurons: Neurotransmission

Cholinergic neurotransmission involves the synthesis and the release of acetylcholine (ACh) in order to transmit nerve impulses across the synapse. The process begins with the synthesis of acetyl CoA, a precursor for ACh, from ATP, acetate, and coenzyme A in the mitochondria. Choline, another vital precursor, is transported inside the neuron through choline transporters, including high-affinity choline transporter CHT1, low-affinity choline transporter CTL1, and lower-affinity choline...
Indirect-Acting Cholinergic Agonists: Pharmacological Actions01:30

Indirect-Acting Cholinergic Agonists: Pharmacological Actions

Indirect-acting cholinergic agonists, also known as anticholinesterases, exert their pharmacological effects by enhancing cholinergic transmission in various body parts, including the neuromuscular junction, autonomic cholinergic synapses, and the brain.
At the neuromuscular junction, these agents work by inhibiting the breakdown of acetylcholine, allowing it to remain bound to the receptor and bind to nearby receptors. This process leads to repetitive firing of the endplate, causing muscle...
Indirect-Acting Cholinergic Agonists: Mechanism of Action01:18

Indirect-Acting Cholinergic Agonists: Mechanism of Action

Indirect-acting cholinergic agonists work by interacting with an enzyme called acetylcholinesterase (AChE) in the synaptic cleft. They can be reversible or irreversible inhibitors and have different effects on the enzyme.
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Sympathetic Signaling01:31

Sympathetic Signaling

Sympathetic signaling, a vital part of the autonomic nervous system, plays a crucial role in mobilizing the body's resources in response to stress or emergencies. It involves the transmission of nerve impulses from sympathetic preganglionic fibers to postganglionic fibers. This results in the release of specific neurotransmitters and activation of adrenergic receptors.
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 6, 2026

Ex Vivo Optogenetic Dissection of Fear Circuits in Brain Slices
11:13

Ex Vivo Optogenetic Dissection of Fear Circuits in Brain Slices

Published on: April 5, 2016

Striatal Cholinergic Interneurons Signal Aversion and Drive Avoidance.

Yuxin Zhou, Hua-An Tseng, Jiancheng Xie

    Biorxiv : the Preprint Server for Biology
    |June 5, 2026
    PubMed
    Summary
    This summary is machine-generated.

    Striatal cholinergic interneurons (ChIs) actively signal aversion. Silencing their excitation impairs avoidance learning, revealing a key cholinergic mechanism for negative outcome learning.

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    Last Updated: Jun 6, 2026

    Ex Vivo Optogenetic Dissection of Fear Circuits in Brain Slices
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    Published on: April 5, 2016

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    Combined Optogenetic and Freeze-fracture Replica Immunolabeling to Examine Input-specific Arrangement of Glutamate Receptors in the Mouse Amygdala
    09:49

    Combined Optogenetic and Freeze-fracture Replica Immunolabeling to Examine Input-specific Arrangement of Glutamate Receptors in the Mouse Amygdala

    Published on: April 15, 2016

    Area of Science:

    • Neuroscience
    • Computational Neuroscience
    • Behavioral Neuroscience

    Background:

    • Seeking reward and avoiding punishment are crucial for survival.
    • The neural mechanisms underlying aversive learning and avoidance behavior are not fully understood.
    • Striatal cholinergic interneurons (ChIs) are implicated in reinforcement learning but their specific role in aversion is unclear.

    Purpose of the Study:

    • To investigate the role of striatal cholinergic interneurons (ChIs) in learning aversive value and generating avoidance behavior.
    • To determine if ChIs signal negative outcomes and contribute to conditioned avoidance.

    Main Methods:

    • Voltage imaging in mice performing aversive and reward conditioning tasks.
    • Analysis of subthreshold membrane voltage and suprathreshold spiking of individual ChIs.
    • Optogenetic silencing of ChI excitation during behavioral tasks.

    Main Results:

    • ChIs showed stronger excitation to cues predicting negative outcomes compared to positive outcomes.
    • This valence-dependent response augmentation was linked to learning about negative outcomes.
    • Optogenetic silencing of ChI excitation selectively impaired conditioned avoidance, but not conditioned approach.

    Conclusions:

    • Striatal cholinergic interneurons (ChIs) actively signal evidence for aversion.
    • ChIs play a critical role in driving conditioned avoidance behavior.
    • These findings highlight a novel cholinergic mechanism underlying aversive learning.