Type VI secretion system: Central regulator of antimicrobial resistance dynamics via indirect mechanisms

Multidrug resistance (MDR) in bacteria poses a significant global threat to public health. Elucidating the core molecular regulatory mechanisms underlying MDR is crucial for developing novel intervention strategies. In Gram-negative bacteria, the phage-derived Type VI Secretion System (T6SS) functions as a versatile "molecular weapon". Beyond its classical role in interbacterial antagonism, T6SS acts as a key indirect regulatory hub for modulating bacterial antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in a strain-specific and environment-dependent manner. Although T6SS does not directly participate in the expression of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) or the catalytic activity of AMR-related enzymes, it profoundly influences the development and dissemination of AMR across strains and species through multiple indirect mechanisms. This review systematically analyzes four core T6SS-mediated mechanisms: (1) secretion of AMR-associated effectors and biofilm modulation to establish resistant phenotypes; (2) formation of synergistic regulatory networks with biofilm development, oxidative stress response, efflux pumps, and other secretion systems, which specifically enhances bacterial antibiotic tolerance (distinct from antibiotic resistance phenotypes); (3) acceleration of horizontal gene transfer (HGT) of ARGs through natural transformation, plasmid conjugation, and outer membrane vesicle (OMV)-mediated transport; (4) targeted interbacterial killing enabling antimicrobial-resistant strains to overcome colonization resistance, gain ecological advantages, and exacerbate clinical infections. Building on this framework, novel anti-AMR strategies targeting T6SS are outlined, including direct disruption of T6SS assembly and function, interference with upstream regulators (e.g., quorum sensing), optimization of CRISPR-Cas gene editing, and engineered T6SS-targeted delivery platforms. By dissecting the T6SS-driven AMR network and its clinical translational potential, this review provides a foundation for designing next-generation therapies to reverse AMR and block ARG transmission and also discusses existing bottlenecks limiting the clinical translation of T6SS-targeted therapies, while identifying critical future research directions such as deciphering species-specific mechanisms and enhancing targeted delivery efficiency.