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Development of Immunocompetence

The initiation of cell-mediated immunity can be observed as early as the third month of fetal growth, with active antibody-mediated immunity following approximately one month later.
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Subsequent T...
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The establishment of the oral microbiome begins before birth, challenging the long-held belief that the fetal oral cavity is sterile. The presence of oral microbes such as Streptococcus and Fusobacterium in amniotic fluid suggests that microbial exposure may occur in utero, potentially through translocation from the maternal oral or gastrointestinal tract. This early colonization primes the neonatal immune system and sets the stage for subsequent microbial succession. Maternal health,...
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Nondisjunction is the failure of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids to separate correctly and move to the opposite poles of the cells. This produces daughter cells with abnormal chromosome numbers.  Nondisjunction is common during anaphase I or anaphase II of meiosis.  Mutations in synaptonemal complex proteins that attach homologous chromosomes increase the chances of nondisjunction in anaphase I of meiosis I. In contrast, mutations in topoisomerases and condensins that hold sister...
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 8, 2026

Generating a Reproducible Model of Mid-Gestational Maternal Immune Activation using Poly(I:C) to Study Susceptibility and Resilience in Offspring
09:09

Generating a Reproducible Model of Mid-Gestational Maternal Immune Activation using Poly(I:C) to Study Susceptibility and Resilience in Offspring

Published on: August 17, 2022

Maternal mortality, birthweight, and immunogenetics: an evolutionary framework for obstetric risk.

Layla Ettinghausen1, Ashley Moffett2

  • 1Department of Obstetrics & Gynaecology, The Queen Elizabeth King's Lynn Hospital, Norfolk, UK.

American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology
|June 6, 2026
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Human childbirth is risky due to evolutionary trade-offs. Interactions between maternal Killer Immunoglobulin-like Receptors (KIR) and fetal Human Leukocyte Antigen-C (HLA-C) influence birth outcomes and disease risk.

Keywords:
birthweighthuman leukocyte antigen C (HLA-C)killer immunoglobulin-like receptor (KIR)placentapreeclampsiareproductive immunologyuterine natural killer cells

Related Experiment Videos

Last Updated: Jun 8, 2026

Generating a Reproducible Model of Mid-Gestational Maternal Immune Activation using Poly(I:C) to Study Susceptibility and Resilience in Offspring
09:09

Generating a Reproducible Model of Mid-Gestational Maternal Immune Activation using Poly(I:C) to Study Susceptibility and Resilience in Offspring

Published on: August 17, 2022

Area of Science:

  • Evolutionary biology
  • Reproductive immunology
  • Human genetics

Background:

  • Human childbirth presents higher risks than in other primates, with significant maternal and perinatal mortality globally.
  • The "obstetric dilemma" highlights the evolutionary conflict between bipedalism's pelvic constraints and delivering large-brained neonates.
  • Birthweight is under stabilizing selection, influenced by maternal-fetal immune interactions involving Killer Immunoglobulin-like Receptors (KIR) and Human Leukocyte Antigen-C (HLA-C).

Purpose of the Study:

  • To explore the evolutionary origins of childbirth risks by integrating the obstetric dilemma with immunogenetic factors.
  • To understand how KIR-HLA interactions influence pregnancy outcomes and maternal-fetal health.
  • To provide a framework for the evolutionary pressures shaping human birth and associated complications.

Main Methods:

  • Review and synthesis of existing research on the obstetric dilemma, KIR-HLA genetics, and pregnancy outcomes.
  • Analysis of the evolutionary trade-offs between pelvic structure, fetal size, and immune system adaptations.
  • Conceptual framework development linking evolutionary pressures to modern obstetric challenges.

Main Results:

  • Specific KIR-HLA genetic combinations are linked to distinct reproductive outcomes, affecting trophoblast invasion and spiral artery remodeling.
  • Maternal inhibitory KIR with fetal HLA-C2 allotypes are associated with increased risk of great obstetrical syndromes (GOS) like pre-eclampsia.
  • Activating KIR-HLA interactions appear protective against GOS but may offer weaker pathogen resistance, suggesting a balancing selection for KIR variants.

Conclusions:

  • The interplay between KIR and HLA-C molecules adds a crucial immunogenetic dimension to the obstetric dilemma.
  • This immunogenetic interaction helps explain the evolutionary origins of obstetric risks, including pre-eclampsia, obstructed labor, and fetal growth issues.
  • Understanding these evolutionary pressures is vital for comprehending current obstetric challenges and potentially predicting future trends in maternal and infant health.