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Longitudinal Evaluation from Birth to Adolescence of Soy Protein-Based Infant Formula Compared with Cow Milk-Based

Larissa L da Cruz1, Julie Shlisky2, B Jayne Bellando1

  • 1Arkansas Children's Nutrition Center, Little Rock, AR, United States; Department of Pediatrics, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR, United States.

Advances in Nutrition (Bethesda, Md.)
|June 7, 2026
PubMed

Insights

Breastfeeding offers lasting health benefits, promoting lower body mass index into adolescence compared to formula feeding. Soy and cow

Area of Science:

  • Pediatric Nutrition
  • Developmental Pediatrics
  • Public Health

Background:

  • Infant formulas, including soy-based options, lack comprehensive long-term safety and developmental data.
  • Early infant feeding choices significantly impact growth, body composition, cardiovascular health, and neurodevelopment.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To prospectively examine the long-term effects of soy-based formula, cow's milk-based formula, and breastfeeding on infant health outcomes through adolescence.
  • To assess growth, body composition, cardiovascular function, gut microbiome, skeletal mineralization, neurodevelopment, and reproductive maturation.

Main Methods:

  • The Beginnings Study enrolled 600 healthy term infants into three feeding groups (soy formula, cow's milk formula, human milk).
  • Follow-up assessments were conducted at 6 and 14 years, including anthropometry, body composition, cardiovascular measures, neurocognitive tests, and microbiome analysis.
  • Electroencephalography (EEG) was used to assess neurodevelopmental differences.

Main Results:

  • Breastfeeding was associated with slower infant weight gain and consistently lower BMI, fat mass index, and waist circumference into adolescence.
  • Formula-fed infants showed comparable skeletal mineralization, neurocognitive parameters, and reproductive development to breastfed infants.
  • Differences in cardiovascular autonomic measures (heart rate, vagal tone) were observed, with some sex-specific effects; distinct gut microbiome signatures were identified.

Conclusions:

  • While breastfeeding confers lasting benefits, soy-based and cow's milk-based formulas show more similarities than differences in overall health outcomes.
  • Findings support the long-term benefits of breastfeeding and provide evidence to guide infant feeding recommendations for preventing obesity and promoting health.

Keywords:
adolescentsbreastfeedingchildrenhealth outcomesinfant feedingsoy-based infant formula

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