Long COVID and Its Impact on Daily Functioning: Findings from the Si-Panda Behavioural Insights Survey in Slovenia

Research on the long-term consequences of COVID-19 has initially focused on the symptoms and prevalence of long COVID. However, few studies have fully incorporated the World Health Organization definition or explored its diverse predictors, including mental health factors. This study aims to deepen the understanding of long-term outcomes of COVID-19 and their associated factors.

Data were drawn from the SI-PANDA Behavioural Insights survey on COVID-19, an online questionnaire administered to a selected sample of participants from an online access panel in Slovenia. The study included 5,961 participants aged 18 to 74. A multivariate logistic regression model was used to identify factors associated with reporting long COVID.

Among the 5,961 respondents, 3,234 reported having been infected with SARS-CoV-2 at least once. Of those, 38% reported persistent fatigue and lack of energy. Long COVID developed in 16.1% (n = 520) of respondents who had been infected. The factor most strongly associated with long COVID was experiencing at least one severe episode of COVID-19, which was associated with a fourfold increase in the odds (OR = 3.99; 95% CI: 3.25-4.91). Other significant associations were observed for risk of a depressive disorder (OR = 2.50; 95% CI: 1.79-3.44), three or more SARS-CoV-2 infections (OR = 2.30; 95% CI: 1.45-3.64), risky stress behaviour (OR = 2.10; 95% CI: 1.38-3.30), and the presence of at least one chronic disease (OR = 1.50; 95% CI: 1.24-1.91).

Understanding and effectively addressing infectious diseases like COVID-19 requires not only insight into the virus's biology and evolution but also recognition of the important role of mental health and psychological factors.