Molecular pathways linking traumatic brain injury to cardiovascular dysfunction: therapeutic potential of physical...

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) affects millions globally and increasingly associates with cardiovascular disease risk through mechanisms involving autonomic nervous system dysfunction, neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, and hypothalamic-pituitary axis disruption. However, the precise molecular pathways remain incompletely understood. This review synthesizes current evidence on TBI-induced cardiovascular dysfunction and explores physical exercise as a therapeutic intervention. We conducted a comprehensive literature narrative review of experimental and clinical studies investigating cardiovascular complications following TBI and exercise-based interventions. TBI triggers a cascade of molecular events leading to autonomic imbalance, chronic inflammation, and oxidative damage that collectively increase cardiovascular risk. Physical exercise emerges as a promising intervention through its capacity to modulate inflammatory processes, restore autonomic balance, and enhance synaptic plasticity. However, optimal timing, intensity, and duration of exercise protocols remain undefined. Understanding heart-brain communication pathways post-TBI is crucial for developing targeted interventions. Physical exercise shows therapeutic potential, but standardized protocols are needed to optimize cardiovascular outcomes in TBI patients.