Graphene in photonic sensing: From fundamentals to cutting-edge applications

Graphene-based photonic sensors have drawn considerable attention for their exceptional optical, electrical, and mechanical properties, enabling the development of highly sensitive, fast, and energy-efficient sensor designs. This review examines the significance of graphene-based photonic sensors and their pivotal role in advancing precision sensing across diverse fields. Key types include fiber-optic, surface plasmon resonance (SPR), and waveguide-integrated sensors, each harnessing graphene's tunable conductivity and broad-spectrum absorption. These sensors offer enhanced sensitivity for detecting gases, biomolecules, and environmental changes, making them invaluable in medical diagnostics, environmental monitoring, and industrial automation. Additionally, graphene's atomic-scale adaptability facilitates miniaturization and integration with flexible substrates, fostering the development of innovative wearable devices. Looking ahead, graphene's unique electronic and optical properties promise breakthroughs in ultra-sensitive, multifunctional photonic sensors. Graphene-based photonic sensors hold transformative potential across fields requiring rapid, accurate, and compact sensing, paving the way for next-generation technologies in healthcare, smart environments, and beyond.