Experimental models in immuno-oncology and their translational impact

Experimental models play a fundamental role in bridging basic scientific discoveries with clinical applications in humans. Integrating in vivo studies into oncology research approaches has the potential to improve therapeutic innovation and support translational strategies. The remarkable similarities between animals and human immune systems have enabled researchers to better clarify immune pathways involved in cancer development and therapy. Moreover, ongoing preclinical investigations are still required to engineer immunomodulatory drugs and other emerging therapeutic approaches. Despite the considerable contributions of in vivo models, particularly murine systems, their future use in experimental theragnostics has become a subject of debate. Ethical concerns and questions regarding the extent to which these models accurately replicate human disease have prompted growing interest in alternative platforms, including organoids, organ-on-chip technologies, and advanced two- and three-dimensional cell culture systems. In the present review, we summarize current experimental evidence on immuno-oncology experimental models used across various cancer types and examine the evolving role of these models. We also discuss whether animal models are gradually becoming less satisfactory due to emerging technologies or biological limitations, or whether their continued application remains justified in certain circumstances.