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Nonlinear effects of climate change on outdoor activities and potential feedback pathways: a systematic review
Yuqi Zhu1, Junyi Guo2, Jinhui Zhang3
1School of Economics and Management, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China.
Introduction:
Climate change is reshaping the suitability, participation conditions, and risk environment of outdoor activities, but the feedback effects of outdoor activities on climate change remain less synthesized.
Methods:
This systematic review searched Web of Science, PubMed, EBSCO, Wiley, SpringerLink, and ProQuest for English-language studies published up to December 27, 2024. Following predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria and PRISMA 2020 reporting, 47 studies published between 2003 and 2024 were included.
Results:
Evidence indicates an asymmetric bidirectional relationship. Climate change affects outdoor activities through rising temperatures, extreme weather, altered precipitation and snow conditions, and environmental degradation, thereby influencing climate suitability, participation behavior, recreation demand, site availability, and health and safety risks. Five themes were identified: climate suitability and activity opportunities; participation behavior and recreation demand; health and safety risks; feedback from outdoor activities to climate change; and adaptation and mitigation strategies. Feedback evidence remains comparatively limited and mainly concerns emissions and ecological pressures associated with transportation, tourism consumption, facility operation, artificial snowmaking, energy use, and resource consumption.
Discussion:
Climate-change effects predominate, whereas feedback from outdoor activities plays a secondary but non-negligible role. Future research should distinguish climate suitability from actual participation and strengthen integrated assessments of carbon emissions, adaptation, risk governance, and low-carbon transition pathways in outdoor activities.
Systematic Review Registration:
https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/PROSPERO/view/CRD42025636854. Unique Identifier: CRD42025636854.
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