Angiogenesis and the corresponding antiangiogenic therapy in gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine neoplasms

Gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine neoplasms (GEP-NENs) are a well-known group of malignancies characterized by hypervascularization, and much of the focus in this field has been on angiogenesis. Rather than simply an increase in microvessel density, angiogenesis of GEP-NENs is a far more sophisticated process regulated by angiogenic factors, genes, and cells. These angiogenesis-related factors are not only involved in tumorigenesis and progression but also serve as biomarkers with prognostic values and targets for antiangiogenic therapy. Extensive research has been conducted on the role of various angiogenesis-related factors in angiogenesis, their prognostic values, and antiangiogenic therapy has become a critical part of the treatment of GEP-NENs. However, the occurrence of drug resistance and unsatisfactory prognosis reminds us that our understanding of angiogenesis of GEP-NENs is insufficient, and we are in urgent need to optimize existing antiangiogenic therapies. This review focuses on angiogenesis-related factors, their roles in angiogenesis, as well as their values in predicting the prognosis of patients, and introduces the corresponding angiogenic therapies. By summarizing current research findings, we aim to shed light on the mechanism of angiogenesis of GEP-NENs and to elucidate prospects for more accurate prediction of prognosis and individualized antiangiogenic therapies.